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BRS (PHYSIO) > CELL PHYSIOLOGY > Flashcards

CELL PHYSIOLOGY Flashcards

1
Q

Composition of Cell membranes

A

Phosphlipids and proteins

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2
Q

Lipid Bilayer

A
  • Phopholipids
    • glycerol backbobe (hydrophilic)
    • Fatty acid tails (hydrophobic)
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3
Q

Lipid-soluble subtances

A

can cross the cell membrane

  • O2
  • CO2
  • steroid hormones
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4
Q

Water soluble substances

A

Cannot dissole in the lipid membranes

  • water filled channels
  • pores
  • carriers
  • Na, Cl, glucose, H20
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5
Q

Types of Proteins in the Cell membrane

A
  • Integral proteins
    • anchored, imbedded through hydrophobic interactions
    • span the cell membrane
    • ion channels, transport proteins, receptors, and GTP binding proteins
  • Peripheral proteins
    • not imbedded
    • not cobalently bound
    • loosely attached via ELECTROSTATIC interactions
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6
Q

Intercellular junstions in the Cell Membrane

A
  • Tight junctions (zonula occludens)
    • between cells (epithelial)
    • intercellular pathway
    • may be permeable (DCT) or impermeable (PCT)
  • Gap junctions
    • permit intercellular communication
    • current flow and elctrical coupling between myocardial cells
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7
Q

Characteristics of Different Types of Transport across cell membranes

A
  • Simple diffusion
  • Facilitated Diffusion
  • Primary active
  • Co transport
  • Countertransport
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8
Q

Only form of tansport that is not carrier mdiated

occurs down an electrochemical gradient

does not require metabolic energy and therefore is passive

A

Simple Diffusion

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9
Q

Formula for Diffusion

A

J = -PA (C1-C2)

  • J = flux (flow) mmol/sec
  • P = permeability (cm/sec)
  • A = Area (cm2)
  • C1= concentration (mmol/L)
  • C2 = concentraition (mmol/L)
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10
Q

Describes the ease with which a solute diffuses through a membrane

Depends on the characteristics of the solute and the membrane

A

Permeability

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11
Q

Facors that increases permeablility

A
  • Increase oil/water coefficient of the solute increases solubility in the lipid of the membrane
  • Decrease radius of the solute increases the diffusion coefficient and speed of diffusion
  • Decrease membrane thickness decreases the diffusion distance
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12
Q

Includes facilitated diffusion and primary and secondary active transport

A

Carrier mediated transport

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13
Q

Characteristics of Carrier mediated transport

A
  • Stereospecificity
  • Satutration
    • the transport maximum (Tm) is analogous to the the maximum velocity (Vmax) in enzyme kinetics
  • Competition
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14
Q
  • Occurs down an electrochemical gradient (“downhill”)
  • Does nt require metabolic energy
  • more RAPID than simple diffusion
  • carrier mediated
A

Facilitated diffusion

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15
Q

Occurs against an electrochemical gradient

requires direct inut of metabolic energy in the form of ATP

carrier mediated

A

Primary active transport

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16
Q

Examples of Primary active transport

A
  • Na, K, ATPase (or Na-K pump)
    • 3 Na 2 K
    • specific inhibitors:
      • cardiac glycosides
      • ouabain
      • digitalis
  • Ca-ATPase (or calcium pump)
    • Sarcoplasmic and endoplasmic reticulum
    • SERCA
  • H, K ATPase (or proton pump)
    • gastric parietal cells
    • Renal alpha intercalated cells
    • Inhibited by PPI
      • Omeprazole
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17
Q

Concentraion of smotically active particles in a solution

Colligative propert that can bemeasured by freezing point depression

A

Osmolarity

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18
Q

The transport of two or more solutes is coupled

One of the solutee (usually Na) is transported downhill and provides energy for the uphill tansport

Metabolic energy is provided INDIRECTLY from the sodium gradient

A

Secondary active transport

  • Cotransport/symport = same direction
    • Na-glucose cotransport
    • Na-K-2Cl
  • Countertransport/exchange/antiport = opposite direction
    • Na-Ca exchange
    • Na-H exchange
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19
Q

Flow of water across a semipermeable membrane from a solution with low solute concentrationto a solution with high solute concentration

A

Osmosis

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20
Q

OSmotic pressure can be calculated by __________

states that osmotic pressure depends on the concentration of osmotically active particles.

A

van’t Hoff’s law

  • g X C X RT
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21
Q

The Osmotic Pressure ________ when the solute concentration increses.

A

Increases

  • The higher the osmotic pressure of a soultion, the greater the water flow into it
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22
Q

The osmotic pressure created by proteins

A

Colloid osmotic pressure or oncotic pressure

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23
Q

Number between zero and one that describes the ease with which a solute permeates a membrane

A

Reflection coeficient

  • if the reflection coefficient is one, the soulte is impermeable. It creates an osmoti prssure
    • albumin
  • If the reflection coefficient is zero, the solutie is completely permeable. therefore it will not exert any osmotic effect
    • urea
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24
Q

osmotic pressure (calculated by van’t Hoff’s law) multiplies by the reflection coefficient

A

Effective osmotic pressure

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25
Q

Integral proteins that span the membrane and, when openm permit the passage of certain ions

A

Ion channels

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26
Q

Characteristics of Ion channels

A
  • Selective
    • based on the size and the distribution of charges
  • May be open or closed
  • The conductance of a channel depends on the probability that the channel is open
    • the higher the probability that a channel is open the higher the conductance
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27
Q

_______ channels are opened or closed by changes in membrane potntial

A

Voltage gated channels

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28
Q

_____________channels areopened or closed by hormones, second messengersm or neurotransmitters

A

Ligand gated channels

  • Nicotinic receptors for ACh
    • when open ot is permeable tto Na and K, causeing motor end plates to depolarize
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29
Q

the potential difference generated across a membrane because of a concentraion difference of an ion

created by the diffusion of very few ions and therefore, do not result in changes in concentration of the diffusion ions

A

Diffusion potential

  • Size of the diffusion potential
    • depends on the size of the concentration gradient
    • whether the diffusing ion is positively or negatively charged
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30
Q

the potential differencethat woul exactly balance (oppose) the tendency for diffusion down a concentration difference

A

Equilibrium Potential

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31
Q

used to calculate the equilibrium potential at a given concentration difference of a permeable ion across a cell membrane

A

Nernst equation

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32
Q

the difference between the actual membrane potential (Em) and the ion’s equilibrium poential (calcualted with the Nernst equation)

A

Driving force

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33
Q

Occurs if there is a driving force on the ion and the membrane is permeable to the ion.

A

Current flow

  • The direction of current flow is in teh same directioon as the driving force
  • The magnitude of current flow is determined by the size of the size of the driving force and the permeability
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34
Q

expressed as the measured potential difference across the cell membrane in millivolts (mV)

by convention, expressed as the intracellular potential relative to the extracellular potential.

A

Resting membrane potential

  • established by diffusion potentials
  • The Na-K pump contributes only indirectly to the resting membrane potential by maintaning across the cell membrane, the Na and K concentration gradients that then produce diffusion potentials
  • The electrogenic contribution of the pump (3 Na pumped out of the cell for every 2K pumped into the cell) is small
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35
Q

makes the membrane potential less negative (the cell interior becomes less negative)

A

Depolarization

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36
Q

Makes the membrane potential more negative (the cell interior becomes more negative)

A

Hyperpolarization

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37
Q

The flow of positive charge into the cell, Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential

A

Inward current

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38
Q

The flow of positive charge out of the cell.

A

Outward current

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39
Q

Property of excitable cells that consists of arapid depolarization, or upstroke, followed by repolarization of the membrane potential

A

Action potential

  • have stereotypical size and shape
  • propagating
  • all or none
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40
Q

membrane potential at which the acton potential is inevitable.

A

Threshold

  • At threshold potential, net inward current becomes larger than the net outward current
  • The resulting depolarization becomes self sustaining and gives rise to the upstroke of the action potential
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41
Q

Resting membrane potential of nerves

A
  • -70 mV, cell negative
  • result of the high resting conducatnce to K+
  • At rest, although the inactivation gates on sodium channels are open, the activation gates on sodium channels are closed and thus the sodium channels are closed and sodium conductance is low
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42
Q

Upstroke of the nerve action potential

A
  1. Inward current deplarizes the membrane potentia threshold
  2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the sodium channels
  3. The sodium conductance becomes higher than the K conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward th soium quilibrium potential. UPSTROKE IS CAUSED BY INWARD SODIUM CURRENT
  4. The overshoot is a brie portion at the peak of the action potential
  5. Tetrodotoxin and lidocaine blocks these voltage gated sodium channels and abolish action potential
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43
Q

Repolarization of nerve action potential

A
  • Depolariation also close the inactivation gates of Na channels
  • Depolarization slowly opens K channe;s and increases potassium conductance. Tetraethylammonium blocks these voldatge gated K channels
  • OUTWARD REPOLARIZATION IS CAUSED BY AN OUTWARD POTASSIUM CURRENT
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44
Q

period during which another action potential cannot be elicited no matter how large the stimulus

Coincides with almost the entire duration of the action potential

A

Absolute refractory period

  • the inactivation gates of sodium channels are closed when the membrane potential is depolarized. They remain closed until repolarization occurs.
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45
Q

Beigns at the end of the absolute refractory period and continues until the membrane potential returns to the resting level

An action potential can be elicitd during this period only if a larger than usual inward current is provided

A

Relative refractory period

  • The K conductance is higher than at rest, and the membrane potential is closer to the K equilibrium potential and therefore, ferther from threshold; more inward current is required to bring the membrane to threshold
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46
Q

Occurs when the cell membrane is held at a depolarized level such that the threshold potential is passed without firing an action potential

occurs because depolarization closes inactivation gates on the sodium channels

A

Accomodation

  • demonstrated in hyperkalema, in whcih skelatal muscle membranes are depolarized by the high serum K concentration. Although the membrane potential is closer to threshold, action potentials do not occur because inactivation gates on sodium channels are closed by depolarization causing muscle weakness
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47
Q

occurs by the spread of local currents to adjacent areas of membrane, which are then depolarized to threshold and generate action potentials

A

propagation of action potentials

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48
Q

Condction velocity is increased by ______

A
  • Increase in fiber size
    • this will decrase internal resistance; thus, conduction velocity down the nerve is faster
  • Myelination
    • acts as an insulator around the nerve axons and incrases conduction velocity
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49
Q

Myelinated nerves exhibit __________ conduction

A
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50
Q

Saltatory conduction

  • action potentials can be generated only at the nodes of ranvier, where there are gaps in the myelin sheath
A
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51
Q

Nerve action potential and ssociated changes in sodium and potassium

A
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52
Q

General Characteristics of Chemical Syanpses

A
  • An action potential in the presynaptic cell causes depolarization of the presynaptic terminal
  • as a result of the depolarization
    • Calicium enters the presynaptic terminal causing release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
  • Neurotansmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and combines with receptors on the postsynaptic cell membrane, causing a change in its permeability to ions and, consequently, a change in its membrane potential
  • Inhibitory neurotransmitters hyperpolarizr the postsynaptic membrane
  • excitatory neurotransmitters depolarizee the postsnaptic membrane
53
Q

Hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

54
Q

depolarize the postsynaptic membrane

A

Excitatory neurotransmitters

55
Q

Neuromuscular junctions

A
  1. Synthesis and storage of ACh in the presynaptic terminal
  2. Depolarization of the presynaptic terminal and calcium uptake
  3. Calcium uptake causes release of ACh into the synaptic cleft
  4. Diffusion of ACh to the postsynaptic membrane (muscle end plate) and binding of ACh to nicotinic receptors
  5. End plate potential in the postsynaptic membrane
  6. Depolarization of adjacent muscle membrane to threshold
  7. Degradation of ACh
56
Q

catalyzes the formation of ACh from acetyl coenzyme A and choline in the presynaptic terminal

A

Choline acetyltransferase

57
Q

ACh is stored in ___________ with ATP and proteoglycan for later release

A

syanptic vesicles

58
Q

Depolarization of the presynaptic terminal opens _____ channels

A

Calcium

59
Q

The synaptic vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and empty their contents into the cleft by __________

A

Exoctosis

60
Q

the nicotinic ACh receptor is also a _______

A

Na and K ion channel

  • binding of ACh to alphaa subunits of the receptor causes a conformational change thatopens the central core of the channel and increases its conductance to Na and K
    • Ligand gated channels
61
Q

the contents of one synaptic vesicle (one quantum) produce a _____________(MEEP), the smallest possible EPP

A

Miniature end plate potential

62
Q

The EPP is tansient because ACh is degraded to acetyl CoA and choline by ________ on the muscle end plate

A

acetylcholinesterase

63
Q

Drug that block the degradation of ACh, prolong its action at the muscle end plate, and increase he size of the EPP

A

Neostigmine

64
Q

Blocks choline reuptake and depletes the presynaptic endings of ACh stores

A

Hemicholinium

65
Q

Caused by the presence of antibodies to the ACh receptor,

Characterized by skeletal muscle weakness and fatigability resulting from a reduced number of ACh receptors on the muscle end plate

The size of EPP is reduced; therefore it is more difficult to depolarize the muscle membrane to threshold and to produce action potentials

A

Myasthenia gravis

66
Q

treatment for myasthenia gravis

A

neostigine

67
Q

Blocks release of ACh from presynaptic terminals

total blockade of the neuromuscular transmission

A

Botulinum toxin

68
Q

Prolongs and enhancesaction of ACh at muscle end plate

A

Neostigmine

69
Q

Depletes ACh stores from presynaptic terminal

A

Hemicholinium

70
Q

Typees of arrangements of synaptic transmission

A
  • One to one synapses
    • neuromuscular junction
  • Many to one synapses
    • spinal motorneurons
71
Q

are inputs that depolarize the postsynaptic cell, bringing it closer to threshold and closer to firing an action potential

caused by opening of cchannels that are permeable to sodium and potssium

A

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

  • Excitatory neurotransmitters include ACh, norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin
72
Q

inputs that hyperpolarie the postsynaptic cell, moving it away from the threshold and farther from firing an action potential

caused by opening Cl channels

A

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

  • Inhibitory neurotransmitters are GABA and glycine
73
Q

occurs when two excitatory inputs arrive at a postsynaptic neuron simultaneosly

A

Spatial summation

74
Q

Occurs when two excitatory inouts arrive at a postsynaptic neuron in rapid succession. Because the resulting postsynaptic depolarizaations overlap in time, they add in stepwise fashion

A

Temporal summations

75
Q

occur after tatanic stimulation of the presynaptic neuron. In each of these, depolarization of the postsynaptic neuron is greater than expected because greater than the normal amounts of neurotransmitter are released, possibly beacuse of the accumulation of calcium in the presynaptic terminal

A

Facilitation, augmentation, and posttetanic potentiation

  • Long-term potentiation (memory) involves new protein synthesis
76
Q

Primary transmitter released from postganglionic sympathetic neurons

synthesized in the nerve terminal and released into the synapse to bind with alpha or beta receptors in the postsynaptic membrane

removed from the synapse by reuptake or is metabolized in the presynaptic terminal by monoamine oxidase (MAO) and catechol-O-methyltransferase

A

Norepinephrine

77
Q

The metabolites of norepinephrine

A
  • 3,4 dihydroxymandelic acid (DOMA)
  • Normetanephrine (NMN)
  • 3-methoxy-4-hyddroxyphenylglycol (MOPEG)
  • 3-methoxy-4-hydroxymandelic acid or vanilylmandelic acid (VMA)
78
Q

Tumor of the adrenal medulla that secretes ccatecholamines, urinary excretion of VMA is increased

A

Pheochromocytoma`

79
Q

synthesized from the norepinephrine by the action of phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase in the adrenal medulla

a methyl group is transferred to NE fro, S-adenosylmethionine

A

Epinephrine

80
Q

Dopamine is prominent in ______ neurons

A

Midbrain

81
Q

Inhibits prolacctin secretion

A

dopamine

82
Q

Dopamine is metabolized by ______

A

MAO and COMT

  • D1 reeptors activate adenylate cyclase via Gs protein
  • D2 receptors inhibit adenylate cyclase via Gi protein
83
Q

Involves degeneration of dopaminergic neurons that use D2 receptors

A

Parkinson disease

84
Q

Involves increased levels of D2 receptors

A

Schizophrenia

85
Q

Present high concentrations in the brain stem

formed from tryptophan

converted to melatonin in the pineal gland

A

Serotonin

86
Q

Formed from histidine

present in the neurons of the hypothalamus

A

Histamine

87
Q

most prevalent excitatory neutrotransmitter in the brain

A

Glutamate

88
Q

How many suntypes of glutamate receptors?

A

4

89
Q

inhibitory neurotranmitter

synthesized from glutamate by glutamate decarboxylase

A

GABA

90
Q

How many types of GABA receptors?

A

2

  • GABAA - increases Cl conductance and is the siteof action of benzodiazepines and barbiturates
    • GABAB - Increases K conductance
91
Q

inhibitory neurotransmitter found primarily in the spinal cord and brain stem

increases Cl conductance

A

Glycine

92
Q

short acting inhibitory neurotransmitter in the gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels, and CNS

Syntheisized in the presynaptic nerve terminals, where NO synthase converts arginine to citrulline and NO

A

Nitric oxide

  • also fucntions in signal transduction of guanylyl cyclase in a variety of tissues, including vascular smooth muscle
93
Q

Each muscle fiber is multinucleare and behaves as a signle unit. It contains bundles of ___a____, surrounde by ____b____ and invaginated by ______c_____

A

a. myofibrils
b. SR
c. transverse tubules

94
Q

A sarcomere runs from ________

A

Z line to z line

95
Q

Present in the A band in the center of the sarcomere

A

Thick filaments

(contains myosin)

96
Q

Myosin has 6 polypeptide chains, including one pair of ____a___ and 2 pairs of_____b_____

A

a. heavy chains

B. light chains

97
Q

Anchored at the Z lines

Present in the I bands

A

Thin filaments

(contains actin,myosin, and troponin)

98
Q

Regulatory protein that permits cross-bridge formation wen it binds calcium

A

Troponin

99
Q

Atacches the troponin complex to tropomyosin

A

troponin T

100
Q

Inhibits the interaction of actin and myosin

A

troponin I

101
Q

Calcum binding protein that, when bound to calcium, permits the interaction of actin and myosin

A

troponin C

102
Q

extensive tubular networks, open to the extracellular space, that carry the depolarization from the sarcolemmal membrane to the cell interior

A

T tubules

103
Q

T tubules are located in the ____band and ____ Band

A

A and I

104
Q

T tubules contain a coltage sensitive protein called_____

A

Dihydropyridine receptor

105
Q

Is the internal tubular structure that is the site of calcium storae and release for excitation-contraction coupling

A

SR

106
Q

SR has ______ that make intimate contact wit the t tubules in a triad arrangement

A

terminal cisternae

107
Q

Steps in excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle

A
  1. action potential in muscle membrane
  2. depolarization of T tubules
  3. Opens calcium release channels in SR
  4. Increase intracellular calcium
  5. Calcium binds to troponin C
  6. Cross-bridge cycling
  7. Ca reaccumulated by SR
  8. Relaxation
108
Q

measured when length is held constant.

A

Isometric contractions

  • Muscle length (preload) is fixed, the muscle is stimulated to contract, adn the developed tension is measured.
  • No shortening
109
Q

Measured when the load is held constant

A

Isotonic contractions

  • The load against which the uscle contracts (afterload) isfixed
  • Shorteninf is measured
110
Q

in lenth tension relationship. It emasures tension developed during _____________ when the muscle is set to fixed lengths

A

isometric contractions

111
Q

tension developed by stretching the muscle to different lengths

A

Passive tension

112
Q

Tension developed when the muscle is stimulated to conract at different lengths

A

Total tension

113
Q

The difference between total tension and passive tension

A

Active tension

114
Q

Active tension is proportional to the ______

A

number of cross bridges formed

115
Q

Fore velocity relationship measures the velocity of shortening of )_______ when the muscle is challenged with different afterload (the load against which the muscle contract)

A

isotonic contractions

116
Q

The velocity of shortening _________ ad the afterload increases

A

Decreases

117
Q

has thick and thin filaments that are not arranged in sarcomeres; therefore they appear homogenous rather than striated

A

Smooth muscle

118
Q

Type of SM that is present in the iris, ciiary uscle of the lens, and vas deferens

they behave as separate motor untis

has little or no electrical coupling between cells

densely innervated

A

Multiunit smooth muscle

119
Q

The most common type of SM and is present in the uterus, GI tract, Ureter and bladder

A

Unitary SM

120
Q

spontaneously active (xhibit slow waves) and exhibits pacemake activity

A

Unittary smooth muscle

121
Q

has properties of both multiunit and single unit smooth muscle

A

Vascular smooth muscle

122
Q

Steps in excitation-contraction couping in smooth muscle

A
123
Q

Comparison of Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles

A
124
Q

Excitation-contracton coupling of _______

  • Action potential -> T tubules
  • Calcium released form nearby SR
    • increase intracellular calcium
A

Skeletal muscle

125
Q

Excitation-contracton coupling of _______

  • Action potential opens voltage gated calcium channels in cell membrane
  • hormones and transmitters open IP3-gated calcium channels in SR
A

Smooth muscle

126
Q

Excitation-contracton coupling of _______

  • Inward calcium current during plateau of action potential
  • Calcium induced calcium release from SR
  • increase Calcium concentration
A

Cardiac muscles

127
Q

Molecular basis for contraction of _________

  • Calcium-troponin C
A

Skeletal and cardiac muscle

128
Q

Molecular basis for ccontraction of____

  • Calcium-calmodulin increases myosin light chain kinase
A

Smooth muscle

BRS (PHYSIO) (14 decks)

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