Chapter 2: Methods

Question 1

Operational definition

Answer 1

A description of a property in concrete measurable terms

Question 2

Demand characteristics

Answer 2

Those aspects of an operational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects

Question 3

Naturalistic observation

Answer 3

A technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural habitat

Question 4

what are some ways to reduce bias in an experiment?

Answer 4

• Anonymity
• Physiological measures
• Deception
• Naturalistic observation

Question 5

Describe what is meant by “sample” and explain why psychologists need to use a “random sample”

Answer 5

• (sample) Collection of Ps (populations) used in a study

- (random sample) Choosing Ps that ensure that every member of a population is represented.

Question 6

Describe the difference between mode, mean, and median

Answer 6

– Mode – most frequently occurring score.
– Mean – the average score (sum total divided by the number of scores).
– Median – the midpoint of scores arranged highest to lowest.

Question 7

explain why correlation (define) doesn’t always prove causation

Answer 7

• When two or more variables seems to related to each other, we say they correlate.
• Correlations describe past and present relations.
• Correlations predict future relations.
– Knowledge of one variable allows us to make predictions about the value of the other variable.
• We cannot say for sure if something will happen based on correlation. Correlation is not fact its just a trend. Also, there could be other factors affecting it (ie watching violent tv shows and aggression)

Question 8

Define and give an example of independent and dependent variables

Answer 8

In: Condition or Event that the experimenter manipulates.
De: Outcome variable that is affected by (dependent upon) the IV. The variable that is measured

Ex:

If a scientist conducts an experiment to test the theory that a vitamin could extend a person’s life-expectancy, then:

The independent variable is the amount of vitamin that is given to the subjects within the experiment. This is controlled by the experimenting scientist.
The dependent variable, or the variable being affected by the independent variable, is life span.

Question 9

List the parts of a neuron

Answer 9

• cell body: the cell’s life support center
• Dendrites: recieve messages from other cells
• Axon: passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
• neural impulses: electrical signal traveling down the axon
• myeline sheath: covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
• Terminal branches of axon: form junctions w other cells

Question 10

What are dopamine and seratonin primarily responsible for

Answer 10

Dop: influences movement, emotion, learning, and attention
Seratonin: influences hunger, mood, sleep, and arousal

Question 11

List the parts of the nervous system and their functions

Answer 11

two parts of the nervous system:
- Central Nervous System (CNS)- the brain and spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body’s senses, muscles, and glands
two parts of peripheral:
- Somatic- voluntary control over our skeletal muscles
- Autonomic- controls that glands and muscles of internal organs. Usually operates on its own (autonomous).
2 autonomic parts:
- Parasympathetic- Slows down body. Decreases heart beat, lowers blood sugar, etc.
- Sympathetic- Arouses your body. Accelerates heart beat, raises blood pressure, etc.

Question 12

List the four parts of the hind brain and their functions

Answer 12

The Pons relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

The Medulla is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Formation is a nerve network that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerrebellum is the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance

Question 13

List the two parts of the midbrain and their functions

Answer 13

Tectum – orients an organism to the environment (receives stimuli).

Tegmentum – involved with movement and arousal, as well as pleasure seeking and motivation.

Question 14

List the parts of the forebrain and their functions

Answer 14

2 areas of fore brain:cerebral cortex and subcortial areas

Thalamus is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Pituitary Gland – is the “master gland” of the body’s hormone-producing system, which rules hormones and that direct the functions of many other glands in the body.

Basal Ganglia – set of subcortical structures that direct intentional movement.

Question 15

What are the five parts of the subcortical structures

Answer 15

Thalamus
Pituitary gland
 Basal Ganglia
Limbic system
hypothalamus

Question 16

List the parts of the limbic system (define)

Answer 16

(STILL PART OF FOREBRAIN)
associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex.

Hippocampus – is critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex.

Amygdala consists of two almond-shaped neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger.

Hypothalamus lies below (hypo) the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

Question 17

What are the four lobes and what do they control?

Answer 17

Frontal lobe (higher functions)

Parietal lobe (body and touch)

Occipital lobe (vision)

Temporal lobe (language)

Question 18

corpus callosum

Answer 18

thick band of nerve fibers that connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres

Question 19

hindsight bias

Answer 19

often referred to as the “I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.” It involves the tendency people have to assume that they knew the outcome of an event after the outcome has already been determined.

Question 20

overconfidence phenomena

Answer 20

cognitive bias in which someone believes subjectively that his or her judgment is better or more reliable than it objectively is. A common way this bias is studied is by asking people how confident they are in the
answers they give to specific questions.

Question 21

reuptake process

Answer 21

The reabsorption of a secreted substance by the cell that originally produced and secreted it.

Question 22

main function of the spinal chord?

Answer 22

Organizes certain behaviors without the brain. Governs our reflexes.

Question 23

brain plasticity

Answer 23

Brain plasticity is the brain’s ability to adapt to change across the lifespan and to rewire itself after damage. With every new experience, the brain changes in some way. As we experience an event or learn a new skill, new connections are formed between neurons, and connections that aren’t needed anymore are eliminated.

This reorganization of the pathways in our brain takes place at an astounding rate when we are young and rapidly acquiring new information, but the brains of adults are also “plastic” to a degree. There is evidence that, in patients with brain damage, healthy brain areas can take over for injured areas and adopt new functions

Question 24

WHAT ARE SOME TECHNIQUES FOR

REDUCING BIAS IN EXPERIMENTS?

Answer 24

Demand characteristics: Page 45// Aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects.

Solution: Naturalistic observation!: technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural habitat

Expectations can influence observations: Page 47//Observer bias Expectations can influence reality: Page 47//Observer’s expectations can have a powerful influence on both their observations and on the behavior of those whom they observe

Double blind- an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and
the person being observed

Question 25

negative vs postive correlation

Answer 25

Negative: If every time the value of one variable increases by a fixed amount the value of the second variable decreases by a fixed amount, then the relationship between the variables is called a PERFECT NEGATIVE
CORRELATION

If every 30-minute increase in sleep was associated with a 2-president decrease in memory,
then sleep and memory would be perfectly negatively correlated.

Positive: If every time the value of one variable increases by a fixed amount
the value of the second variable also increases by a fixed amount, then the relationship between the variables is called a PERFECT POSITIVE
CORRELATION

If every 30-minute increase in sleep was associated with a 2-president increase in memory,
then sleep and memory would be perfectly correlated.

Question 26

how does brain plasticity have to do with phantom limbs?

Answer 26

plasticity- ability of brain to modify pathways

say you lose a hand, your brain modifies where your hands sensory neurons are