Chapter 2 Part 1

Question 1

What are the four aspects of disease that form the core of pathology?

Answer 1

Etiology, pathogenesis, morphologic changes, and clinical manifestations

Question 2

Definition of disease

Answer 2

Deviation from the normal structure or function of a part of an organ or system as manifested by symptoms and signs

Question 3

Definition of disorder

Answer 3

Abnormality of function, morbid physical or mental state

Question 4

Definition of neoplasm

Answer 4

New and abnormal growth, uncontrolled and progressive

Question 5

Definition of Syndrome

Answer 5

A set of symptoms that occur together

Question 6

Definition of cellular adaptations

Answer 6

Reversible functional and structural responses to changes in physiologic and sometime pathologic stimuli, results in a new but altered steady state

Question 7

Definition of cell injury

Answer 7

Sequence of events following a cells exposure to injurious agent, deprivation of nutrients, or excessive mutation beyond which the cell can adapt to

Question 8

What is a cell’s response to an injurious stimulant that causes increased demand and stimulation?

Answer 8

Hypertrophy and hyperplasia

Question 9

What is a cell’s response to decreased nutrients and stimulation?

Answer 9

Atrophy

Question 10

What is a cell’s response to chronic irritation?

Answer 10

Metaplasia

Question 11

Definition of hypertrophy

Answer 11

increase in size of a cell resulting in the overall increase of the organ

Question 12

What is the most common stimulus for hypertrophy?

Answer 12

increased workload

Question 13

Hypertrophy is the result of what cellular process?

Answer 13

Increased protein production

Question 14

What are the three stimulants that trigger cardiac hypertrophy?

Answer 14

Mechanical sensors, growth factors, vasoactive agents

Question 15

What are the signal transduction pathways involved in muscular hypertrophy

Answer 15

PI3K/AKT pathway and GPCR downstream

Question 16

What transcription factors are activated by the signal transduction pathways involved in muscular hypertrophy?

Answer 16

GATA4, NFAT, MEF2; work together to increase proteins responsible for hypertrophy

Question 17

What protein switches are associated with contractile proteins in hypertrophy?

Answer 17

alpha isoform being replaced by the beta isoform (neonate form)

Question 18

What is one change in gene expression seen in cardiac hypertrophy?

Answer 18

Gene for ANF is expressed in atrium and ventricle in embryo heart and will be downregulated after birth. However, it may be increased as a result of cardiac hypertrophy in order to reduce load

Question 19

Definition of hyperplasia

Answer 19

increase in number of cells in response to a stimulus

Question 20

What causes physiologic hyperplasia?

Answer 20

hormones or growth factors released in excess due to an increase in functional capacity of hormone sensitive organs or if there is a need for a compensatory change

Question 21

What is an example of hormonal hyperplasia?

Answer 21

Growth of breast tissue in response to pregnancy?

Question 22

What is an example of compensatory hyperplasia?

Answer 22

Liver regeneration after a partial hepatectomy

Question 23

What causes pathologic hyperplasia?

Answer 23

excess or inappropriate actions of hormones or growth factors

Question 24

What is the pathogenesis of endometrial hyperplasia?

Answer 24

A disruption of estrogen and progesterone balance can result in an increase of Estrogen. This increase causes hyperplasia of the endometrial glands leading to abnormal menstrual bleeding.

Question 25

What is one characteristic response to certain viral infections in cells?

Answer 25

Viruses interfere with host proteins that regulate cell proliferation and cause HYPERTROPHY

Question 26

What are the two main mechanisms involved in hyperplasia?

Answer 26

growth factor-driven proliferation of mature cells, increased output of new cells from tissue stem cells

Question 27

Definition of atrophy

Answer 27

reduction in size of an organ or tissue due to a decrease in cell size and number

Question 28

Describe atrophy as it correlates to decreased workload

Answer 28

when a fractured bone is placed in a cast, skeletal muscle atrophy quickly begins, initially cell shrinking then apoptosis

Question 29

Describe atrophy as it correlates to loss of innervation

Answer 29

Damage to nerves that contribute to metabolism and function of skeletal muscle results in atrophy

Question 30

Describe atrophy as it correlates to diminished blood supply

Answer 30

a gradual in decrease in blood flow as a result of an arterial occlusion will cause tissues to atrophy

Question 31

Describe atrophy as it corelates to inadequate nutrition

Answer 31

After glucose and adipose stores have been depleted, the body utilizes proteins of skeletal muscle causing the breakdown and damage of these cells

Question 32

Describe atrophy as it correlates to loss of endocrine stimulation

Answer 32

Loss of a hormone (such as estrogen) can result in loss of stimulation and growth (breast tissue)

Question 33

Describe atrophy as it correlates to pressure

Answer 33

Ischemic changes caused by a compromise of blood supply by pressure causing agent may lead to tissue destruction

Question 34

What is the main mechanism of atrophy?

Answer 34

Protein degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, may also be accompanied by autophagy

Question 35

Definition of metaplasia

Answer 35

a reversible change where one differentiated cell type is replaced by another (cell replaced by another cell that can better withstand and adapt to the ongoing stress)

Question 36

What is the most common type of epithelial metaplasia and what are some causes?

Answer 36

columnar to squamous, especially in respiratory tissue due to chronic irritation; also caused by stones in excretory ducts, vitamin A deficiency

Question 37

What type of metaplasia is seen in Barrett esophagus?

Answer 37

squamous to columnar

Question 38

What is the main mechanism of metaplasia?

Answer 38

Reprogramming of stem cells that exist in tissues, a dysregulation of proteins involved in cell differentiation and growth is commonly seen in metaplasia

Question 39

What are some hallmarks of reversible cell injury?

Answer 39

Reduced oxidative phosphorylation and subsequent ATP reduction and cell swelling due to changes in ion concentrations and water influx

Question 40

What are the seven common causes of cell injury?

Answer 40

Oxygen deprivation, physical agents, chemical agents, infectious agents, immunologic reactions, genetic derangements and nutritional imbalances

Question 41

What are some morphologic features seen in reversible cell injury?

Answer 41

cellular swelling and fatty change

Question 42

What are the ultrastructural changes seen in reversible cell injury?

Answer 42

Plasma membrane alterations, mitochondrial changes, dilation of ER, nuclear alterations