Chapter 2 - Research Methods

Question 0

erroneous belief that you knew something all along after an event has occured

Answer 0

hindsight bias

form of overconfidence

Question 1

tendency to overestimate extent to which others share personal beliefs or behaviors

Answer 1

false consensus effect

Question 2

describes a belief that requires people to accept information as irrefutible and to refrain from questioning authority

Answer 2

dogmatism

Question 3

rules or techniques that provide a framework for observations

Answer 3

methods

Question 4

objective statements made using direct observations

Answer 4

facts

Question 5

ideas that help explain existing facts

Answer 5

theories

Question 6

predictions about new facts, based on existing theories

Answer 6

hypotheses

Question 7

person who takes part in an experiement who is seemingly a subject but is really working with the reasearcher

Answer 7

confederate

Question 8

variable that a researcher can manipulate

Answer 8

independent variable

Question 9

study in which different groups are exposed to different independent variables

Answer 9

between-group experiement

Question 10

study in which each participant is exposed to several different independent variables

Answer 10

within-subject experiement

Question 11

group that is subject to an independent variable

Answer 11

experiemental group

Question 12

group that is given no treatment or who are given treatment that should have no effect

Answer 12

control group

Question 13

process by which participants in an experiement are randomly placed into groups

Answer 13

random assignment

Question 14

group of participants in an experiment that is identical to at least one other group in terms of a particular variable

Answer 14

matched sample

Question 16

set of participants, one from one group, one from another, who are identical in terms of a particular variable

Answer 16

matched pair

Question 16

situation in which an observer expects a certain behavior and only notices actions that support that behavior

Answer 16

observer bias, observer expectancy effect

Question 17

study of people and animals in their own environment

Answer 17

naturalistic observation

Question 18

observers who do not know what the research is about and thus are not subject to observer bias

Answer 18

blind observers

Question 19

in depth study of one or a few individuals

Answer 19

case study

Question 20

study of people or animals in a controlled setting

Answer 20

laboratory observation

Question 21

technique in which the participants of a survey are chosen randomly so as to get a fair representation of a population

Answer 21

random sampling

Question 22

series if questions about a person’s behavior or opinion in the form of a questionairre or interview

Answer 22

survey

Question 23

form of data collection in which people are asked to describe their own behavior or mental state

Answer 23

self-report method

Question 24

form of data collection in which people provide oral descriptions of themselves; could be strictly structured or conversational

Answer 24

interview

Question 25

series of questions with a strict purpose that has been developed using careful controls such as precise wording, carefully constructed questions, and random sampling

Answer 25

questionairre

Question 26

type of observational method in which participants are provided with stimuli or problems and researchers collect data about how they perform a certain task

Answer 26

testing

Question 27

process of observing and recording a subject's behavior

Answer 27

observational method

Question 28

statistics researchers use to summarize data sets

Answer 28

descriptive statistics

Question 29

statistics that use probability laws to predict how likely it is that observed results apply to a broader population

Answer 29

inferential statistics

Question 30

three most typical scores in a set of data; mean, median, mode

Answer 30

measures of central tendency

Question 31

degree to which numbers in a data set differ from each other and from the mean

Answer 31

variability

Question 32

difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set

Answer 32

range

Question 33

measure of dispersion of a set of values using information from each individual score

Answer 33

standard deviation

Question 35

difference between an individual data point's actual value and the mean value of the whole data set

Answer 35

deviation score

Question 35

representation of a frequency distribution in which veritical or horizontal bars are proportional in length to the value they represent; bars are different categories and can be rearranged

Answer 35

bar graph

Question 36

summary of how frequently each of the scores in a data set occurs

Answer 36

frequency distribution

Question 37

graphical representation of an evenly distributed data set in which the curve is symmetrical and bell shaped due to even distribution of results and tendency to accumulate around the center

Answer 37

normal curve

Question 38

representation of a frequency distribution using rectangles in which the width of a rectangle represents an interval and the area of a rectangle is proportional to the corresponding frequency

Answer 38

histogram

Question 39

graphical representation of an unevenly distributed data set in which scores cluster together on one end

Answer 39

skewed distribution

Question 41

indication that the difference between between average scores from two reliable samples is not due to chance

Answer 41

statistical significance

Question 41

random variable that is accidentally introduced into an experiment

Answer 41

error

Question 42

a statistic that identifies the probability that the results of a study could have occured by chance

Answer 42

level of significance

Question 43

personal and sometimes unreasonable judgment that a reasearcher may make that could affect the results

Answer 43

bias

Question 44

aspects of a setting that can cause participants to behave the way they think the researcher wants them to

Answer 44

demand characteristics

Question 45

degree to which a measurement measures what it is intended to measure

Answer 45

validity

Question 46

degree to which a measurement yields similar results every time it is used with a particular subject under particular conditions

Answer 46

reliability

Question 47

extent to which a study superficially measures what it is intended to measure

Answer 47

face validity

Question 48

indication of how closely a measurement correlates with another criterion of the characteristic being studied; school achievement correlates with intelligence, so if a large enough group of people who do well in school also perform well on an intelligence test the test has...

Answer 48

criterion validity

Question 49

type of criterion validity in which you can use the results of a test to predict score or performance in another area; a career test might have this

Answer 49

predictive validity

Question 50

type of validity that uses a specific procedure that measures or correlates with a theoretical or intangible concept; an intelligence test with this validity can measure intelligence

Answer 50

construct validity

Question 51

type if validity indicating that a researcher is able to control all extraneous values so that only the independent variable infleunces the result; proves there is a causal relationship between dependent and independent variable

Answer 51

internal validity

Question 52

type of validity indicating that a test can be generalized to the rest of the population; likely to have this using a representative sample

Answer 52

external validity

Question 53

occurence in which participants expect to behave in a certain way given their treatment, causing them to adjust their behavior

Answer 53

subject-expectancy effect

Question 54

experiement in which both the subject and observer are kept blind, negating the subject and observer expectancy effects

Answer 54

double-blind experiment

Question 55

substance or procedure which resembles medical therapy but has no intrinsic therapeutic value

Answer 55

placebo

Question 56

give a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study sfter the study occurs; used to avoid deception and not undermine informed consent

Answer 56

debrief

Question 57

3 ethical considerations in psychological research

Answer 57

right to privacy possibility if discomfort or harm use of deception

Question 58

scientific and professional organization that represents psychologists in the US

Answer 58

american psychological association (APA)

Question 59

ethics review panel established by a publicly runded research institution to evaluate all proposed research by that institution

Answer 59

institutional review board (IRB)

Question 60

factors that determine a result's statistical significance

Answer 60

size of observed effect number of subjects or observations variability if data within each group (uncontrolled or random factors)

Question 61

why do we need scientific methods?

Answer 61

avoid hindsight bias, avoid false consensus effect, and think critically

Question 62

birth of psychology marked a shift from ____ to ____

Answer 62

dogmatism to empiricism

Question 63

to reduce errors in empirical research it's important to have ___

Answer 63

a method

Question 64

empirical challenges of studying people

Answer 64

people are complex, different, and react to situations differently

Question 65

theory vs hypothesis with Hans the math whiz horse

Answer 65

theory: maybe hans is taking cues from people around him hypothesis: I predict that Hans will be unable to answer questions without visual cues

Question 66

difference between theories and hypotheses

Answer 66

idea vs preediction theories are ideas that help explain facts, hypotheses are predictions about new facts based on existing theories

Question 67

three important lessons of scientific research

Answer 67

be skeptical, observe carefully in controlled conditions, be aware of observer-expectsncy effects

Question 68

correlation study

Answer 68

a researches does not manipulate variables, but observes if there is a relationship between variabled indicate correlation, not causation/ cause and effect

Question 69

how to prevent third variable problem in correlation studies

Answer 69

matched samples or matched pairs (better) groups or groups&individuals are identical in terms of third variable

Question 70

descriptive study

Answer 70

observe and describe behavior without investigating the relationship between specific variable how animal adapts to new environemnt

Question 71

types of descriptive study

Answer 71

naturalistic observation, laboratory observation, case studies, surveys

Question 72

types of research setting

Answer 72

laboratory (downside less natural, might be missing a key variable) field (downside harder to control surroundings and isolate variables)

Question 73

two types of statistics

Answer 73

descriptive statistics summarize data sets inferential statistics make inferences about results

Question 74

two representations of frequency distributions

Answer 74

bar graph, histogram

Question 75

what might cause biased samples

Answer 75

demand characteristics, self-selection, not randomly assigned groups

Question 76

how to avoid measurement bias

Answer 76

check that the measurements are reliable and valid; procedure can have reliability but not validity (asking about fashion preferences in an experiement designed to test self defense ability lacks face validity but is reliable if the individual consistently answers the same way)

Question 77

how to avoid observe- and subject-expectancy effects

Answer 77

double-blind study (no one knows whose in the control group and whose in the experimental group)

Question 78

represents continuous data, bars are ranges that can't be rearranged

Answer 78

histogram