Chapter 6 Flashcards by Arlyn Buligan

feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being

emotions

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Helps express joy, sadness, fear, interest, etc

communication with others

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Shapes social
responses and adaptive
behavior as they interact with others in their world.

behavioral organization

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Enthusiasm ➔ Joy ➔ Love

positive emotions

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➔ Anxiety ➔ Anger ➔ Guilt ➔ Sadness

negative emotions

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Apparent in the changes in a baby’s emotional capacities.

brain region such as brain stem, hippocampus, and mygdala play roles in emotions like distress excitement and rage

biological influence

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develops gradually to regulate emotions and control responses.

frontal cortex

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Affects infants’ and children’s emotional
development both immediately and over time.
● As children become older, cognitive strategies are developed for controlling their emotions, and they become more adept at modulating their emotional arousal.

Cognitive Processes

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Evolution has made humans emotional, but relationships and culture provide emotional diversity.
● Caregivers influence emotional
development and coping with stress.

Biological & Cultural Interaction

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Maltreatment/
Neglect/
Parental Depression

Negatively impacts emotional growth.

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Helps infants recover
from stress more effectively

Sensitive Caregiving

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Social both roles in distress, relationships provide the setting for the development of a rich variety of emotions.

Social Relationships

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Causes distress in toddlers, leading to inhibited play.

Parental Conflict

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Use humor to lighten the mood and manage conflicts.

➢ Well-Functioning Families

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Cultural differences occur
emotional experiences. EXAMPLES:
❖ East Asian infants show less frequent and less intense
positive negative and emotions
compared to non-Latino White infants.
❖ Japanese parents focus on preventing
negative emotions in their children.
❖ Non-Latino White mothers typically
respond after
distress occurs and then help children cope.

Cultural Differences

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A leading expert on infant emotional development which distinguishes between primary emotions and self-conscious emotions.

Michael Lewis

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Present in humans and animals. ○ Appear within the first 6 months of life.
○ Include: ■ Surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust.

primary emotions

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Requires self-awareness that
involves consciousness and a sense of “me.”
○ Occur mostly between 6 months to 2 years.
○ Include: ■ Jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt.

SELF-CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS

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Important / additional notes
➔ Some experts on emotion call self-conscious emotions such as embarrassment, shame, guilt,
and pride
_______ because they involve the emotional reactions of others when they are generated.
➔ EXAMPLE: approval
Parental encourages
toddlers to feel pride after completing a task.

other-conscious emotions

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Emotional expressions are important for infant-caregiver communication.
● Infants and caregivers modify emotional expressions in response to each other, creating mutually regulated interactions (reciprocal/ synchronous).
● Sensitive, responsive caregiving
contributes to emotional growth in infants. ➢ EXAMPLE: lower levels of fear with sensitive mothers.

EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP

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infants
detected their mothers’ stress, shown by an increased heart rate when reunited with them.
○ Correlation: The greater the
mother’s stress response, the more the baby’s heart rate increases.

MATERNAL STRESS AND BABY’S RESPONSE

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The most important mechanism newborns have for communicating with their world.

crying

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verifies that the baby’s lungs have filled with air.
● Cries provide information about the newborn’s central nervous system health.

the first cry

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rhythmic pattern, associated with hunger. ◆ cry → briefer silence → shorter whistle (somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry) → brief rest → next cry

basic cry

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➔ louder and more forceful, often due to frustration. ➔ variation of the basic cry — more excess air is forced through vocal cords.

anger cry

➔ sudden, loud, and intense, triggered by discomfort or pain.

pain cry

an important contributing interaction to and social early signal, social emotional communication. It plays a role in developing social skills.

smiling

➔ Does not occur in response to external stimuli ➔ Appears during the first month after birth, usually during sleep.

reflexive smile

occurs in response to external stimuli, such as seeing a face. ➔ Occurs as early as 2 months of age.

social smile

two types of smiling

reflexive and social smile

One of a baby’s earliest emotions, which typically appears around 6 months and peaks around 18 months. ● However, abused or neglected infants may display fear as early as 3 months

fear

the most common form of infant fear, emerging gradually around 6 months and becoming more intense by 9 months, peaking at the end of the first year and decreasing thereafter. Individual variations exist, and the occurrence of stranger anxiety also depends on the social context and characteristics of the stranger: ○ Infants feel less anxiety in familiar settings (e.g., less anxiety meeting a stranger at home vs. in a research lab). ○ Infants are less fearful of child strangers than adult strangers, and friendly, smiling strangers elicit less fear compared to passive, unsmiling strangers

STRANGER ANXIETY

or crying when the caregiver leaves, is also an expression of fear in infants, typically starting around 7-8 months and peaking at about 15 months in the U.S.

SEPARATION PROTEST

Infants gradually develop the ability to inhibit or minimize emotional reactions during their first year. ➢ Initially, they primarily rely on caregivers to help them regulate soothing emotions, techniques using like rocking or singing lullabies and sucking their thumb.

emotional regulation

Contexts Matter: Infants' ability to regulate emotions is influenced by contextual factors such as fatigue, hunger, time of day, typically starting around 7-8 months and peaking at about 15 months in the U.S. EMOTION REGULATION AND COPING the environment, and the people around them. ● By the age of 2, toddlers can express and label their emotions, helping caregivers assist with emotional regulation. EXAMPLE: “doggy scary”

CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCE

Research indicates that mothers are more likely than fathers to use soothing techniques like rocking and touching to calm crying infants.

MOTHERS VS FATHERS

involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding ● predispositions toward emotional reactivity and self-regulation (Bates & Pettit, 2015)

temperament

involves variations in the speed and intensity with which an individual responds to situations with positive or negative emotions.

reactivity

involves variations in the extent or effectiveness of an individual's ability to control his or her emotions

self-regulation

a child who is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy and adapts easily to new experiences.

CHESS AND THOMAS’ CLASSIFICATION easy child

a child who tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change.

CHESS AND THOMAS’ CLASSIFICATION difficult child

a child who has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.

CHESS AND THOMAS’ CLASSIFICATION slow to warm up child

focuses on the differences between shy, timid children and sociable, bold children.

KAGAN'S BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION

Shyness with strangers (peers or adults) is a key feature of this temperament category, starting around 7 to 9 months of age. ● Characteristics of Inhibited Children: ○ react to unfamiliar situations with avoidance, distress, or subdued affect

INHIBITION TO THE UNFAMILIAR

Mary Rothbart and John Bates (2006) introduced a classification that includes______ as a key dimension of temperament.

effortful control (self-regulation)

The three broad dimensions of temperament are:

extraversion/surgency negative affectivity effortful control (self-regulation)

includes approach, pleasure, activity, smiling, and laughter

Extraversion/Surgency –

includes fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort.

Negative Affectivity

involves attentional focusing, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure.

Effortful Control (Self-Regulation)

Children can regulate their arousal and soothe themselves.

High effortful control

Children struggle to regulate arousal, becoming easily agitated and intensely emotional.

■ Low effortful control

Kagan (2002, 2010, 2013) argues that children inherit a ____ that biases them to have a particular type of temperament. However, through experience, they may learn to modify their temperament to some degree.

physiology

An ______ is linked to specific physiological patterns such as: ○ high and stable heart rate ○ high cortisol levels (stress hormone) ○ increased activity in the right frontal lobe of the brain. ● These patterns may be associated with the excitability of the amygdala, a brain structure involved in fear and inhibition.

inhibited temperament

Gender may influence how parents react to a child’s _____

temperament.

______ tend to be more responsive to the crying of irritable girls than to that of irritable boys (Crockenberg, 1986).

Mothers

Cultural context affects how temperament is ______and responded to. Parental attitudes vary by _____

valued culture.

A child’s _______ can encourage or discourage the persistence of certain temperament traits (Parade et al., 2018; Schumann et al., 2017).

environment

Children prone to distress (e.g., frequent crying or irritability) may prompt parents to either ignore the child’s distress or try to force them to _____. ● Solution → Research has shown that extra support and training for parents can improve interaction

“behave”

According to Erik Erikson (1968), the first year of life is characterized by the ________ stage of development. ● Children who leave infancy with a sense of trust can still have their sense of mistrust activated at a later stage, perhaps if their parents are separated or divorced under conflictual circumstances.

trust trust versus mistrust

Studying the development of a ______ in infancy is difficult mainly because infants cannot verbally express their thoughts and impressions. They also cannot understand complex instructions from researchers.

sense of self

One ingenious strategy to test infants’ visual self-recognition is the use of a _____

mirror technique.

Signs of______ began to appear among some infants when they were 15 to 18 months old. By the time they were 2 years old, most children recognized themselves in the mirror. In sum, infants begin to develop a self-understanding called self-recognition at approximately 18 months of age

self-recognition

Erikson describes the second stage of development as the stage of______ and doubt. ● Infants feel pride in new accomplishments and want to do everything themselves, whether the activity is flushing a toilet, pulling the wrapping off a package, or deciding what to eat.

independence autonomy versus shame

Between 18 and 24 months of age, children markedly increase their imitative and reciprocal play, such as imitating nonverbal actions like jumping and running.

Social Orientation

The infant’s and toddler’s push for independence is also likely paced by locomotion skills development. Of further importance is locomotion’s motivational implications. Once infants can move into goal-directed pursuits, the rewards from these pursuits lead to further efforts to explore and develop skills.

Locomotion

Perceiving people as engaging in intentional and goal-directed behavior is an important social cognitive accomplishment that occurs toward the end of the first year. Also, engaging in meaningful interactions is an important aspect of infant development. Social referencing increases during the second year of life

Intention, Goal-Directed Behavior, and Meaningful Interactions with Others

is the term used to describe “reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation

Social Referencing

The more advanced social cognitive skills of infants likely influence their understanding and awareness of attachment to a caregiver

Infants’ Social Sophistication and Insight

A close emotional bond between two people.

attachment

_____ proposed that infants form attachments to the person or object that satisfaction, provides oral typically the mother due to feeding.

Freud’s theory

John Bowlby (1969, 1989) proposed that both infants and their caregivers are ______ to form attachments. This innate drive is essential for the infant's survival, as attachment behavior (crying, clinging, cooing, smiling) is designed to keep the primary caregiver nearby. ○ The long-term effect of these attachment behaviors is to increase the infant’s chances of survival.

biologically predisposed

From birth to 2 months. Infants respond to all humans equally. ➔ Strangers, siblings, and parents are equally likely to elicit smiling or crying from the infant

phase 1

➔ From 2 to 7 months. Attachment focuses on one primary caregiver. ➔ The baby gradually learns to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar people.

phase 2

➔ From 7 to 24 months. Specific attachments develop. ➔ With increased locomotor skills, babies actively seek contact with regular caregivers

phase 3

➔ From 24 months on. Children become aware of others’ feelings, goals, and plans. ➔ They begin to take these into account in forming their own actions.

phase 4

Ainsworth created the Strange Situation, an observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order.

● Strange Situation

Babies use the caregiver as a secure base to explore the environment.

Securely attached babies

Babies who show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver. If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away.

Insecure avoidant babies

Babies who often cling to the caregiver, then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away.

Insecure resistant babies

Babies who show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented.

Insecure disorganized babies

Caregivers are sensitive, responsive, and consistently available. Babies are actively involved in interaction and bonding.

Secure Attachment

Caregivers are unavailable, rejecting, or irritable. ● Babies learn not to rely on them.

AVOIDANT

Caregivers are inconsistent in responding to needs. ● Leads to clingy but anxious behavior

RESISTANT (Ambivalent)

Caregivers may be neglectful, abusive, or depressed. ● Babies show fear, confusion, or erratic behavior.

DISORGANIZED

less spontaneity, financial constraints, and shift in priorities.

CHALLENGES OF PARENTHOOD Lifestyle Changes

_____ functions as a constellation of subsystems, meaning it is a complex whole made up of interconnected parts, defined by generation, gender, and roles. ○ These subsystems influence one another ______

The family reciprocally

Dual-career parents may worry about child care and its impact on their child.

CHALLENGES OF PARENTHOOD Work-Family Balance

Marital Satisfaction and Relationship Changes

CHALLENGES OF PARENTHOOD most couples enjoy a more positive marital relations before pregnancy

→ women often experience unmet expectations, as men contributed less than anticipated

CHALLENGES OF PARENTHOOD Gender Differences in Adjustment

Socialization between parents and children is not a one-way process (Maccoby, 2015). Instead, it is reciprocal, meaning that children also influence their parents, not just the other way around. This mutual influence is sometimes called a transactional process (Kuczynski, Parkin, & Pitman, 2015; Sameroff, 2009, 2012).

Reciprocal Socialization

is when parents time interactions to help children more skillful ○ Examples → peek-a-boo; encouraging turn-taking in interactions ○ Benefits of _____: ■ increased helping behavior ■ enhanced cognitive skills

Scaffolding

Warmth and care help infants form secure attachments.

Sensitive Parenting

Parents guide behavior to reduce undesirable actions.

Behavior Management

Childproofing to prevent dangerous situations. Corrective Methods → Address fussing, crying, and object-throwing.

○ Proactive Approach

Can be as sensitive and responsive as mothers. ● Low engagement is linked to more disruptive behavior and lower cognitive development in children. ● Both parents’ sensitivity impacts cognitive and language development.

FATHERS’ COMPETENCY IN INFANT CARE

focus on caregiving (feeding, bathing, diaper changing) ___ playfulness is linked to better emotional regulation at 4 years.

Mothers

engage in more rough-and-tumble play. playfulness with 2-year-olds linked to better vocabulary at 4 years.

fathers

Chapter 6 Flashcards

(97 cards)