Chapter 9: The Organization of Knowledge in the Mind

Question 1

Can be expressed in words and other symbols.

Answer 1

Declarative

Question 2

Knowledge about how to follow procedural steps for performing actions.

Answer 2

Procedural

Question 3

The use of multiple approaches and techniques to address a problem.

Answer 3

Converging operations

Question 4

4 fundamental unit of symbolic knowledge.

Answer 4

Concepts
Categories
Semantic networks
Schemas

Question 5

Idea about something that provides a means of understanding the world.

Answer 5

Concepts

Question 6

Group of items into which different objects or concepts can be placed that belong together because they share some common features
or can act as a category.

Answer 6

Categories

Question 7

3 categories in symbolic knowledge.

Answer 7

Natural Category
Artificial Category
Ad Hoc Category

Question 8

A knowledge base that represents semantic
relations between concepts in a network.

Answer 8

Semantic networks

Question 9

Mental frameworks of knowledge that encompass a number of interrelated concepts; creates a meaningful structure of related concepts.

Answer 9

Schemas

Question 10

Groupings that occur naturally in the world, like birds or trees.

Answer 10

Natural categories

Question 11

Groupings that are designed or invented by humans to serve particular purposes or functions.

Answer 11

Artifact categories

Question 12

Categories that are just created for a moment or for specific purpose.

Answer 12

Ad hoc categories

Question 13

Concepts appear to have this level of
specificity, a level within a hierarchy that is preferred to other levels.

Answer 13

Basic level (natural level)

Question 14

Theories on concept organization.

Answer 14

Feature-based categories
Prototype theory
Exemplars
Theory-based categorization

Question 15

A full theory of categorization can combine both defining and characteristic features, so that each category has both a prototype and a core; combining feature-based and prototype theories.

Answer 15

Synthesis

Question 16

Must have this to be considered a member.

Answer 16

Feature-based categories

Question 17

Category containing salient features that are true of most instances; ideal representation of the category.

Answer 17

Prototype theory

Question 18

Takes different approach: grouping things together not by their defining features but rather by their similarity to an averaged model of the category.

Answer 18

Prototype theory

Question 19

An abstract average of all the objects in the category we have encountered before. It is what the objects are compared with in order to put them into a category.

Answer 19

Prototype

Question 20

Describe the prototype but are not necessary for it. Commonly are present in typical examples of concepts, but they are not
always present.

Answer 20

Characteristic Features

Question 21

Categories that can be readily defined through defining features such as bachelor.

Answer 21

Classical concepts

Question 22

Categories that cannot be so easily defined, such as game or death.

Answer 22

Fuzzy concepts

Question 23

Refers to the defining features somethings must have to be considered an example of a category.

Answer 23

Core

Question 24

Typical representatives of a category.

Answer 24

Exemplars

Question 25

A view of meaning which holds that people understand and categorize concept in terms of implicit theories, or general ideas they have regarding those concepts; also called an explanation-based view.

Answer 25

Theory- Based View of Categorization

Question 26

An older model still in use today is that knowledge is represented in terms of a hierarchical semantic network.

Answer 26

Collins and Quillian's Network Model

Question 27

A web of elements of meaning (nodes) that are connected with each other through links.

Answer 27

Semantic network

Question 28

Elements of meaning; typically concepts.

Answer 28

Nodes

Question 29

Contains information about the particular order in which things occur.

Answer 29

Script

Question 30

Specialized vocabulary commonly used within a group, such as profession or trade.

Answer 30

Jargon

Question 31

Information is handled through a linear sequence of operations, one operation at a time.

Answer 31

Serial Processing of information

Question 32

Types of non-declarative knowledge.

Answer 32

Procedural knowledge Simple associative conditioning Simple Non Associative Knowledge Priming

Question 33

Types of priming.

Answer 33

Semantic priming Repetition

Question 34

Contains a mechanism by which information can be retrieved and also a structure for storing information; nodes can be either inactive or active at a given time; suggests means by which the network changes as a result of activation.

Answer 34

Act-R (Anderson)

Question 35

3 stages of acquisition of procedural knowledge.

Answer 35

Cognitive stage Associative stage Autonomous stage

Question 36

We think about explicit rules for implementing the procedure.

Answer 36

Cognitive stage

Question 37

We consciously practice using the explicit rules extensively, usually in a highly consistent manner.

Answer 37

Associative stage

Question 38

We use these rules autonomically and implicitly without thinking about them.

Answer 38

Autonomous stage

Question 39

Aspect of proceduralization; involves the two complementary processes of generalization and discrimination; we learn to generalize existing rules to apply them to new conditions.

Answer 39

Production tuning

Question 40

We handle very large numbers of cognitive operations at once through a network distributed across incalculable numbers of locations in the brain.

Answer 40

Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models/connectionist models

Question 41

Not stimulated beyond their threshold of excitation. They do not release any neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Answer 41

Inactive neurons

Question 42

Release neurotransmitters that stimulate receptive neurons at the synapse; increase the likelihood that the receiving neurons will reach their threshold of excitation.

Answer 42

Excitatory neurons

Question 43

Release neurotransmitters that inhibit receptive neurons; reduce the likelihood that the receiving neurons will reach their threshold of excitation.

Answer 43

Inhibitory neurons

Question 44

Related to meaning as expressed in language—i.e., in linguistic symbols.

Answer 44

Semantic

Question 45

Provides a means of organizing concepts.

Answer 45

Network

Question 46

The overall process by which we transform slow, explicit information about procedures (“knowing that”) into speedy, implicit, implementations of procedures (“knowing how”).

Answer 46

Proceduralization