CLPS 1700 - Chapter 2 Flashcards
(168 cards)
1
Q
What is an etiology?
A
The factors that lead a person to develop a psychological disorder (33)
2
Q
Describe the breakdown of the nervous system.
A
NS = {CNS (brain + spinal cord) + PNS (sensory-somatic NS + autonomic NS [sympathetic + parasympathetic])}
3
Q
What does the sensory-somatic nervous system do?
A
Controls how we interact with the external world through sensory input and motion/muscle output (35)
4
Q
What does the autonomic nervous system do?
A
Controls how we respond to stress (35)
5
Q
What does the ANS control?
A
Involuntary processes, like those of the heart, digestive tract, blood vessels, etc. (35)
6
Q
Name some functions of the sympathetic nervous system.
A
Increased heart rate, pupil dilation, slows down digestion: fight or flight response (35)
7
Q
What is the HPA axis?
A
Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis: manages cortisol production in fight-or-flight mode (35)
8
Q
What does cortisol do?
A
Readies the muscles for physical exertion by helping the body release fuel more effectively (35)
9
Q
Where is cortisol produce during a fight-or-flight response?
A
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (35)
10
Q
Name some functions of the parasympathetic nervous system.
A
Settles you down: slows heart rate back to normal, contracts the pupils, resumes digestive tract activity (36)
11
Q
What are the four major lobes of the brain?
A
Occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal
12
Q
What is the function of the occipital lobe?
A
Entirely dedicated to vision (36)
13
Q
What lobes are present in the RH vsLH?
A
Each of the four lobes is present in both halves! (36)
14
Q
What is the function of the parietal lobe?
A
Processing spatial info, self-awareness, etc. (36)
15
Q
What is the function of the temporal lobe?
A
Stores visual memories, processes auditory information, decodes the meaning of speech, contributes to conscious experience (36)
16
Q
Why is the temporal lobe named that?
A
Because the hemispheres are located right under the temples (36)
17
Q
What is characteristic of abnormal temporal lobe functioning?
A
Intense emotion, such as mania (36)
18
Q
What is the function of the frontal lobe?
A
Crucial in feeling emotions and using emotional responses in decision making, thinking, problem solving in general; programming actions and controlling body movements: the seat of “executive functioning” (36)
19
Q
What brain malfunction causes schizophrenia?
A
Frontal lobe malfunctioning (36)
20
Q
Explain the basic pathway of information through the brain
A
Occipital > Parietal and Temporal > Frontal (36)
21
Q
What is the cerebral cortex?
A
The outer layer of cells on the surface of the brain, contains the neurons (36)
22
Q
What is a neuron?
A
A cell that processes info related to out physical, mental, and emotional functioning (36)
23
Q
Where are the functions of the four lobes carried out?
A
In the neurons of the cortices of each lobe (36)
24
Q
What role does the limbic system play?
A
Emotions: includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala (37)
25
hypothalamus
Governs bodily functions associated with eating, drinking, temperature control, emotions and experiences of pleasure (37)
26
amygdala
Producing and perceiving strong emotions, especially fear (37)
27
hippocampus
Memory and new info storage that can be voluntarily recalled (37)
28
List seven important subcortical areas.
Limbic system (hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala), thalamus, nucleus accumbens, basal ganglia, cerebellum (37)
29
thalamus
Controlling sleep, maintaining attention (37)
30
Deficits in the thalamus may lead to what disorder?
Schizophrenia: difficulty focusing attention (37)
31
Nucleus accumbens
Registering reward and learning from experience (37)
32
The nucleus accumbens is studied heavily in what psychopathology area?
Substance abuse (37)
33
Basal ganglia
Automatic responses (37)
34
Disruptions of the basal ganglia functions can lead to what psychopathology?
OCD: difficulty regulating their preoccupying thoughts or repetitive behaviors (37)
35
cerebellum
Manages physical coordination, attention, automatic motions (37)
36
What are the three main types of neurons?
Sensory, motor, and interneurons (38)
37
Sensory neurons
Receive input from sense organs (38)
38
Motor neurons
Carry output that stimulates muscles and glands (38)
39
Interneurons
Make up most of the neurons of the brain, and carry messages between the other two types (38)
40
Brain circuit
A set of connected neurons that work together to accomplish a basic process (38)
41
Brain system
An organized set of brain circuits, which often involve most of an entire lobe or even large portions of several lobes (38)
42
When does a neuron fire?
Only when the sum of its inputs tells it to: when the stimuli outweigh the inhibitors (38)
43
Action potential
The wave of chemical activity that moves from the cell body down the axon when a neuron fires (39)
44
Where are the chemicals released at the end of an axon stored?
In "terminal buttons" (39)
45
What is a terminal button?
The place where the chemical released by a neuron are stored (39)
46
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons, stimulate neurons, and play a role in modulating input from other neurons (39)
47
Synaptic cleft
The gap between the dendrite of a receiving neuron and the axon of a sending neuron where the signal jumps across (40)
48
What are neuromodulators?
Chemicals that alter the way neurotransmitters affect the receiving neuron (40)
49
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter involved in reward and motivation; plays a role in the frontal lobe to orchestrate body movements (40)
50
What happens when one has too little dopamine?
ADHD, depression (40)
51
What happens when one has too much dopamine?
Schizophrenia, inappropriate aggression (40)
52
Serotonin
Inhibitory neurotransmitter, mood, sleep, motivation (40)
53
What may happen with too little serotonin?
Depression, OCD (40)
54
What may happen with too much serotonin?
Reduced motivation (40)
55
Acetylcholine
Important to hippocampus: involved in storing new info in memory; also involved in fight or flight of the ANS (40)
56
What may happen with too little acetylcholine?
Production of delusions (40)
57
What may happen with too much acetylcholine?
Spasms, tremors, convulsions (40)
58
Adrenaline/epinephrine
Attention and fight or flight response (41)
59
What may happen with too little adrenaline?
depression (41)
60
What may happen with too much adrenaline?
Over-arousal, feelings of apprehension or dread (41)
61
Noradrenaline/norepinephrine
Attention and fight or flight, just like adrenaline (41)
62
What may happen with too little noradrenaline?
Distractibility, fatigue, and depression (41)
63
What may happen with too much noradrenaline?
Schizophrenia, anxiety disorders (41)
64
Glutamate
Fast-acting excitatory neurotransmitter, registers pain and helps form new memories (41)
65
What may happen with too much glutamate?
Substance abuse (41)
66
What may happen with too little glutamate?
Schizophrenia (41)
67
Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)
Common inhibitory substance (41)
68
What may happen with too little GABA?
Anxiety and possibly panic disorder (41)
69
What may happen with too much GABA?
Undermining of motivation (41)
70
Endogenous cannabinoids
Emotion, attention, memory, appetite, movement control
71
What may happen with too little endogenous cannabinoids?
Chronic pain (41)
72
What may happen with too much endogenous cannabinoids?
Eating disorders, memory impairment, attention difficulties, possible schizophrenia (41)
73
Why are the descriptions of neurotransmitters' function so general?
The effects of the neurotransmitter substances depend on the nature of the receiving neurons (41)
74
Where are neurons' receptors located?
On the dendrites or the cell body (41)
75
How do neurotransmitter molecules and receptors interact?
Instead of locking/unlocking the neuron, the molecules excite or inhibit the neuron, making it more or less likely to fire (41)
76
Can neurotransmitter molecules bind to different receptors, or are there specific receptors per neurotransmitter?
Most often, neurotransmitter molecules can bind to a variety of receptors: depending on which kind they bind to, they'll have a different effect (41)
77
Give an example of how the effect of dopamine changes based on what receptors it binds to.
In the nucleus accumbens: binds to receptors of that subcortical reward circuit to register pleasure/reward: often involved in substance abuse VS In the frontal lobes: binds to receptors as a neuromodulator to disrupt executive function, potentially causing schizophrenia (41)
78
Are the terms neurotransmitter and neuromodulator mutually exclusive?
Nope: for example, dopamine acts as a neurotransmitter in the nucleus accumbs, but as a neuromodulator in the frontal lobes (41)
79
List three ways in which neural communications can malfunction at the synaptic cleft.
1) Too many/few dendrites/receptors, 2) Too much/little of a neurotransmitter substance, 3) Malfunction after the neuron fires, such as fault/nonexistent uptake of the neurotransmitter molecules unbound to receptors that are still left in the synaptic cleft (42)
80
What happens when neurons don't reabsorb enough of the molecules left in the synaptic cleft after the neuron fires?
There's chronically high levels of that neurotransmitter, which means that the receiving neuron alters its sensitivity to expect such high levels all the time, registering with the rest of the body as a deficit (42)
81
Hormones
Neurotransmitter substances that are released directly into the bloodstream and often function primarily as neuromodulators: more general and widespread effect (42)
82
Are all neurotransmitter substances transmitted across the synaptic cleft between neurons?
Nope, hormones are released directly into the bloodstream! (42)
83
Where is cortisol produced?
In the adrenal glands located above the kidneys (42)
84
What kind of role does any one gene have in determining most psychological disorders?
A very small one (45)
85
What happens when you learn, according to the textbook?
genes In your brain are turned on, which causes new connections among neurons to be formed (46)
86
List three ways in which genes can affect the environment.
Passive interaction, evocative/reactive interaction, active interaction (47)
87
Passive interaction of genes affecting environment
Parents' genes affect child's environment, child passively receives the influence (46)
88
Evocative/reactive interaction of genes affecting environment
A person's inherited traits cause others to behave in particular ways: if you're tall, people might be shy with you (46)
89
Active interaction of genes affecting environment
Genes influence which environments we are drawn to: if genes make you sensitive to environmental stimulation, you are actively avoiding large, loud social situations (47)
90
What do behavioral geneticists study?
The roles of genes, the environment, and their interactions in both normal and abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (48)
91
How can the environment influence genes?
By influencing when and which genes are turned on and off (48)
92
What are the three types of learning that can explain many psychological disorders?
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning (48)
93
Classical conditioning
Learning that occurs when two stimuli are paired so that a neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus that elicits a reflexive behavior (48)
94
What is another name for classical conditioning?
Pavlovian conditioning (48)
95
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that reflexively elicits a behavior, like a loud noise eliciting a flinch (49)
96
Unconditioned response
A response that is reflexively elicited by a stimulus, like a flinch from a loud noise (49)
97
Conditioned stimulus
A neutral stimulus that, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit the reflexive behavior (49)
98
Conditioned response
A response that comes to be elicited by the previously neutral stimulus that has become a conditioned stimulus (49)
99
Conditioned emotional responses
Emotions and emotion-related behaviors that are classically conditioned (49)
100
Stimulus generalization
The process whereby responses come to be elicited by stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (49)
101
What does it mean to be high in neuroticism?
To have the personality characteristic of being generally emotionally reactive (49)
102
Operant conditioning
Learning in which the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated depends on the consequences associated with the behavior (incorporates reinforcement) (50)
103
What is the distinction between classical and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning involves reflexive behaviors, whereas operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors (50)
104
Which psychologist really pioneered operant conditioning?
B.F. Skinner (50)
105
Reinforcement
The process by which the consequence of a behavior increases the likelihood of the behavior's recurrence (50)
106
Positive reinforcement
When a desired reinforced is received after the behavior, increasing the likelihood of the behavior occurring again (50)
107
Negative reinforcement
When an aversive stimulus is removed after the behavior, increasing the likelihood of the behavior occurring again (50)
108
Give an example of negative reinforcement
You feel sad and eat ice cream. The behavior, eating ice cream, is negatively reinforced by the removal of the stimulus, feeling sad, so you're more likely to repeat the behavior, eating ice cream, when you feel sad (50)
109
Is negative reinforcement the same as punishment?
NO, DON'T THINK THAT.
110
Punishment
The process by which an event or object that is the consequence of a behavior decreases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again (50)
111
Positive punishment
Punishment that takes place when a behavior is followed by an undesirable consequence, making the behavior less likely to occur (51)
112
Negative punishment
Punishment that takes place when a desirable consequence following a behavior is removed, making the behavior less likely to occur (51)
113
What does the "negative" part of negative reinforcement and negative punishment indicate?
That something is being removed: for reinforcement, an averse stimulus is removed; for punishment, a positive consequence is removed (51)
114
What does the "positive" part of positive reinforcement and positive punishment indicate?
That something occurs: for reinforcement, a positive stimulus occurs; for punishment, a negative consequence occurs (51)
115
Learned helplessness
Giving up in an aversive situation when it seems there is no other action to be taken (52)
116
Observational learning
Learning through watching what happens to others; aka modeling (52)
117
What two contributing mental factors play important roles in etiology?
Mental processes and mental contents (53)
118
What three mental processes are especially influential in psychological disorders?
Attention (eating disorder: paying more attention to "ugly" features), perception (depression: rating neutral faces as happy), memory (hypochondriasis: remembering every "symptom") (53)
119
Cognitive distortions
Dysfunctional, maladaptive thoughts that are not accurate reflections of reality and contribute to psychological disorders (54)
120
List six cognitive distortions.
All-or-nothing thinking, overgeneralization, mental filter, disqualifying the positive, jumping to conclusions, personalization (54)
121
What is another term for cognitive distortions?
Cognitive vulnerabilities: they can make a person vulnerable to psychological disorders (54)
122
All-or-nothing thinking
Black and white: if you're not perfect, you're a failure
123
Overgeneralization
Seeing a single event as a part of a never-ending pattern: one bad day means they're all going to be bad
124
Mental filter
Focusing too strongly on negative qualities or events to the exclusion of the other qualities or events: focusing on a bad haircut even though you look fine elsewise
125
Disqualifying the positive
Not recognizing or accepting positive experiences or events, emphasizing the negative instead: only focusing on mistakes instead of positive feedback after a presentation
126
Jumping to conclusions
Making an unsubstantiated negative interpretation of events: assuming someone doesn't like you even without evidence
127
Personalization
Seeing yourself as the cause of a negative even when you're not responsible: thinking your parents' divorce was your fault
128
How do biased mental processes and distorted mental contents interact?
Biased mental processes make certain stimuli more prominent and easier to call to mind, leading to cognitive distortions; Distorted mental contents can create a bias in what people attend to, perceive, and remember (55)
129
Affect
An emotion that is associated with a particular idea or behavior, similar to an attitude (55)
130
Self-serving attributional bias
When people attribute to positive events, but not negative, to their own positive traits (56)
131
Dissociative disorders
Involve a separation of normally integrated mental processes (57)
132
What kind of affect do people with dissociative disorders generally display?
Flat affect (57)
133
What kind of affect do schizophrenics usually display?
Flat affect (57)
134
List three types of problems that difficulty in regulating emotions and related thought and behaviors can lead to.
Externalizing problems, internalizing problems, and other problems (57)
135
Externalizing problems
Too little control of emotion/related behaviors: aggression, disruptive behavior: primary effects are on others/environment, usually observable (57)
136
Internalizing problems
Negative internal experiences: anxiety, social withdrawal, depression; primary effect is on individual, less observable (57)
137
Other problems (third category, with externalizing and internalizing)
Emotional or behavioral problems, like eating disorders or learning disorders (57)
138
Personality disorder
Inflexible and maladaptive stable personality traits that lead to distress or dysfunction (57)
139
What are the two general types of human emotion?
Approach emotions and withdrawal emotions (58)
140
Approach emotions
Positive, love and happiness, tend to activate the left frontal lobe (58)
141
What brain area do approach emotions activate?
The left frontal lobe (58)
142
Withdrawal emotions
Negative, fear and sadness, tend to activate the right frontal lobe (58)
143
What brain area do withdrawal emotions activate?
The right frontal lobe (58)
144
Depression is associated with less activity in which area of the brain?
Left frontal lobe, which is usually activated by approach emotions (58)
145
Temperament
The various aspects of personality that reflect a person's typical emotional state and emotional reactivity, including the speed/strength of reactions to stimuli (58)
146
Why is temperament of interest in psychological study?
It might be a part of the neurological vulnerability for certain disorders, and a psych disorder might even be an extreme form of a temperament (58)
147
According to some studies, what percent of the variability in temperament is accounted for by genes?
About 50%, or half (59)
148
Describe Cloninger's theory of temperament.
Four dimensions of temperament, each associated with a brain system that relies on a certain neurotransmitter (59)
149
Cloninger's novelty-seeking temperament
Seeking out and positively reacting to novel stimuli: impulsive, avoiding frustration, easily losing temper; associated with dopamine (rewards); high level associated with disorders with impulsive or aggressive behaviors (59)
150
Which of Cloninger's temperaments, in high levels, may cause impulsive or aggressive behavior disorders?
Novelty-seeking (59)
151
Which neurotransmitter is associated with novelty-seeking temperaments?
Dopamine (rewards) (59)
152
Cloninger's harm-avoidance temperament
Reacting very negatively to harm and avoiding it when possible; associated with serotonin (mood and motivation); high level associated with anxiety disorders (59)
153
Which of Cloninger's temperaments, in high levels, may cause anxiety-related disorders?
Harm-avoidance (59)
154
Which neurotransmitter is associated with harm-avoidance temperaments?
serotonin (mood and motivation) (59)
155
Cloning's reward dependence temperament
The degree to which behaviors that have led to desired outcomes in the past are repeated; associated with norepinephrine (attention and stress response); low levels with high impulsivity leads to substance abuse (59)
156
Which of Cloninger's temperaments, in low levels in conjunction with high impulsivity, may lead to substance abuse disorders?
Reward dependence (59)
157
Which neurotransmitter is associated with reward dependence temperaments?
Norepinephrine (attention and stress response) (59)
158
Cloninger's persistence temperament
Making continued efforts in the face of frustration when attempting to accomplish something; associated with low dopamine levels; low levels associated with ADHD (59)
159
Which of Cloninger's temperaments, in low levels, is associated with ADHD?
Persistence (59)
160
Which neurotransmitter, in low levels, is associated with persistence temperaments?
Dopamine (rewards) (59)
161
Is Mendelian or complex inheritance responsible for temperament?
Complex (59)
162
List three social factors that can be significant stressors.
Family, community, and culture (60)
163
High-expressed emotion (family interaction style)
A family interaction style characterized by hostility, unnecessary criticism, or emotional over-involvement (60)
164
What disorder typically recurs in patients from families who exhibit a high-expressed emotional style, depending on the culture?
Schizophrenia (61)
165
Why does a high-expressed emotional style often lead to a relapse into schizophrenia or psychological disorder?
Because it's generally accompanied by the belief/perception that the patient can control the symptomatic behaviors, and thus is at fault, which exacerbates the issue (61)
166
How can child maltreatment increase the risk for a psychological disorder?
By altering bodily/neurological responses to stress, by inducing learned behaviors as a consequence of maltreatment such as helplessness, by biasing perception of facial expressions, by creating difficulties in attachment, and by increasing social isolation (62)
167
What are two suggested reasons why people of a lower socioeconomic status develop more psychological disorders?
Social causation: the stresses of their lower standard of living compose the "stress" component of the diathesis-stress model (63), Social selection/drift: the mentally ill "drift" to a lower SES (63)
168
What is the problem suppression-facilitation model?
That cultural factors can affect a child's behavior by minimizing or amplifying the child's natural tendencies (65)
