Crime Summarised Flashcards
(319 cards)
1
Q
What does crime mean?
A
An action or behaviour that goes against the particular country or state.
2
Q
What does deviance mean?
A
Actions which go against the norms and values of a society.
3
Q
True or False: Deviance is always against the law.
A
False
4
Q
What does social construction mean?
A
A social phenomenon which is not naturally created by the society in which it is found.
5
Q
How does the definition of criminal action and deviant behaviour change?
A
It changes over time.
6
Q
Provide an example of a behaviour that has changed from deviant to acceptable.
A
Homosexuality - Deviant and illegal to acceptable.
7
Q
Fill in the blank: Taking cocaine changed from _______ to illegal narcotic.
A
[legal medicine]
8
Q
What influences the acceptability of certain behaviours contextually?
A
Situational context.
9
Q
Provide an example of a behaviour that is acceptable in one context but not in another.
A
Bikini on the beach vs bikini in the centre of town.
10
Q
What is an example of a culturally inappropriate behaviour?
A
Eating with your left hand in Arab nations is considered rude.
11
Q
How does age affect the acceptability of behaviours?
A
Some behaviours are acceptable for certain age groups and illegal for others.
12
Q
Give an example of an age restriction.
A
Age restrictions on certain products.
13
Q
What is one psychological explanation for why people commit crime?
A
Bowlby - People who are insecurely attached may become juvenile delinquents.
14
Q
What does Freud’s theory suggest about criminal behaviour?
A
Imbalance of Id, Ego, and Super-Ego leads individuals to be controlled by basic instincts.
15
Q
What biological feature is linked to criminal behaviour according to some theories?
A
The Warrior Gene (MAOA).
16
Q
What is a criticism of biological explanations for crime?
A
Lack of empirical evidence to conclusively link traits to criminal behaviour.
17
Q
What is a key concept of functionalist theories of crime and deviance?
A
Society’s norms and values shape what is considered criminal or deviant.
18
Q
Who is the thinker associated with Boundary Maintenance & Social Cohesion?
A
Durkheim
Durkheim believed that crime reinforces societal norms and values.
19
Q
What does an increase in a certain type of crime signify according to Clinard and Cohen?
A
A warning sign of deviant change
This indicates that societal issues may need to be addressed.
20
Q
What are the positive functions of crime according to Cohen?
A
Provides legitimate opportunities and social cohesion
Cloward and Ohlin also contributed to this perspective.
21
Q
What is a criticism of the functionalist perspective on crime?
A
Ignores the role of the powerful in defining criminality
This perspective also overlooks the impact on individual victims.
22
Q
According to Durkheim, why is some social deviance necessary?
A
To allow society to progress and adapt
Without deviance, society may become stagnant.
23
Q
What is the ‘Safety Valve’ theory proposed by Davis and Polsky?
A
Minor crimes can prevent more serious offenses
For example, pornography may reduce the occurrence of serious sexual crimes.
24
Q
What is the primary focus of Functionalist Theories of Crime and Deviance?
A
How crime helps achieve societal goals
Merton’s theory from the 1950s illustrates this concept.
25
What does Strain Theory by Merton suggest about crime?
People commit crime to achieve societal goals through alternative means
## Footnote
For example, innovation represents this alternative approach.
26
What are the five types of strain according to Merton?
* Conformity
* Innovation
* Ritualism
* Rebellion
* Retreatism
## Footnote
Each type represents a different response to societal goals and means.
27
What does Control Theory focus on?
The bonds with society that prevent crime
## Footnote
It assumes people are naturally bad and need societal controls to behave.
28
What is a limitation of Control Theory?
Doesn't explain why bonds are weak or strong
## Footnote
Strong bonds can still lead to deviant behavior.
29
True or False: Marxist theories of crime and deviance focus on the role of capitalism in crime.
True
## Footnote
Marxists argue that capitalism creates conditions for crime.
30
What is the primary reason capitalism is considered criminogenic?
It leads to crime due to the gap between the rich and poor.
31
What does selective law enforcement imply?
The criminal justice system applies the law differently to various social groups.
32
Who are typically criminalized according to selective law enforcement?
Working class and ethnic minorities.
33
What is the outcome for the rich under selective law enforcement?
They often get let off or ignored.
34
What does selective law making refer to?
Laws that are socially constructed to benefit the rich and powerful.
35
What activities do the rich often engage in that result in death, injury, fraud, or theft?
Activities protected under the law, such as health and safety violations.
36
What is one ideological function of crime according to Marxist theory?
To justify social control by the ruling class.
37
According to Gordon (1976), what is crime a rational reaction to?
Capitalist forces such as greed, profit, and competition.
38
What does Reiman (2001) suggest about the ruling class?
They are more likely to commit crimes.
39
What is an example of a crime often committed by the ruling class?
Social security fraud.
40
What does Chambliss argue about the law?
It is shaped to protect property and the powerful.
41
Why are governments reluctant to pass laws regulating corporate activities?
It could affect profitability.
42
What is the significance of the corporate homicide law passed in 2007?
Only 1 successful prosecution in the first 8 years.
43
What does Marxism focus on regarding crime?
Class inequalities.
44
What other inequalities does Marxism ignore that can lead to crime?
Gender and ethnicity.
45
What is suggested about the working class and crime due to economic circumstances?
They cannot help but commit crime.
46
If crime is a symptom of capitalism, what does this imply about communist states?
They would be crime-free, which was not the case.
47
Who are most victims of crime according to Marxist theory?
The poor and working class.
48
What is a critique of Marxist theory regarding victims of crime?
If accurate, the ruling class would also be victims.
49
What is a characteristic of modern democracies regarding law-making?
They include a range of interests.
50
Are most criminal laws controversial in modern societies?
No, there is generally a consensus on the greater good.
51
What does a fully social theory of crime aim to achieve?
A comprehensive understanding of crime and deviance for the betterment of society
## Footnote
This theory encompasses various elements including the origins of deviant acts and social reactions.
52
What are the elements of a fully social theory of crime?
* The wider origins of the deviant act
* The immediate origins of the deviant act
* The act itself
* The immediate origins of the social reaction
* The wider origins of social reaction
* The effect of labelling
## Footnote
These elements together provide a holistic view of crime.
53
In what three ways does Neo-Marxism agree with traditional Marxism?
1. Capitalism is based on exploitation and class conflict
2. The state creates and enforces laws for the benefit of the ruling class
3. Crime is a reaction to the inequalities of capitalism
## Footnote
These points highlight the shared foundational beliefs regarding societal structure.
54
What was a significant societal issue during the 1970s related to crime?
Media outrage at muggings
## Footnote
This period also saw increased scrutiny of the police and societal reactions to crime.
55
What role does labelling play in crime and deviance?
It affects how individuals are perceived and treated within society
## Footnote
Labelling can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy where individuals internalize the labels applied to them.
56
What is one criticism of Neo-Marxism according to Rock (1988)?
It gives an overly romantic view of criminals, portraying them as Robin Hoods fighting an unjust system
## Footnote
This perspective may overlook the complexities of criminal motivations.
57
According to Left Realism, who are the primary victims of crime?
The working class
## Footnote
Left Realism emphasizes that crime often disproportionately affects those within the same socioeconomic class.
58
What is a significant critique from feminists regarding Neo-Marxist theories?
It is a gender blind theory that applies the same explanations to both men and women
## Footnote
Feminists argue that motivations for crime can differ significantly between genders.
59
What is the stance of Hirst (1975) on Neo-Marxism?
He regards it as having strayed too far from traditional Marxism to be considered linked
## Footnote
This critique highlights a divergence in ideological perspectives.
60
Fill in the blank: Neo-Marxism suggests that capitalism should be replaced with a _______.
classless society
## Footnote
The idea is that a classless society would significantly reduce crime.
61
True or False: Not all crime is politically motivated according to criticisms of Neo-Marxism.
True
## Footnote
Examples include domestic violence and rape, which are often not reactions to capitalist structures.
62
What is one argument against the practical application of Neo-Marxist theory?
It is overly idealistic and difficult to apply to real life
## Footnote
Critics argue that while theoretical insights are valuable, they may not translate effectively into real-world scenarios.
63
What does social construction mean?
Social phenomena that is created by a naturally occurring result of evolution
## Footnote
This concept emphasizes that societal norms and definitions are shaped by cultural and historical contexts.
64
Who introduced the concept of the relativity of crime and deviance?
Becker
## Footnote
Becker's perspective highlights that definitions of crime and deviance can vary across different contexts.
65
What are examples of context factors influencing crime and deviance?
* Contextual
* Historical Period
* Cultural
* Generational
## Footnote
These factors demonstrate how perceptions of crime and deviance can change over time and across different societies.
66
Who are moral entrepreneurs?
The people who decide what is morally acceptable within society
## Footnote
Moral entrepreneurs often influence laws and societal norms.
67
What is primary deviance?
A person commits an act that they know is criminal but no one else knows, so no label is attached
## Footnote
This concept emphasizes acts that do not lead to a social label.
68
What is secondary deviance?
Occurs when a deviant act is witnessed and the individual is labeled as deviant
## Footnote
This can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy where the individual continues to act in accordance with the label.
69
What does Lemert's labelling process suggest?
Labelling leads to selective law enforcement and negotiation of justice
## Footnote
This implies that societal labels can disproportionately affect certain groups.
70
What are the agencies of social control?
* Police
* Courts
* Peers
* Society
## Footnote
These agencies work to enforce societal norms and laws.
71
What are the consequences of labeling?
Once labeled as deviant, a person may act in the way they have been labeled
## Footnote
This can lead to greater amounts of deviance and reinforce negative stereotypes.
72
What is a limitation of labeling theory?
Doesn't explain why people commit the original deviance
## Footnote
This theory focuses on the effects of labeling rather than the causes of deviant behavior.
73
What strengths does labeling theory emphasize?
* Emphasizes the social construction of crime and deviance
* Reveals how deviant careers can be established
## Footnote
These strengths highlight the role of societal perceptions in shaping deviant behavior.
74
True or False: Labeling theory suggests that a deviant becomes a victim and is therefore not to blame for their behavior.
True
## Footnote
This perspective can lead to debates about personal responsibility versus societal influence.
75
What does the realist view of crime and deviance focus on?
Realist perspectives emphasize the actual impact of crime and deviance on society
## Footnote
This view often critiques labeling theory for its focus on social perceptions rather than real consequences.
76
What distinguishes realist approaches from other theories of crime?
Realist approaches look at the causes of crime and provide practical solutions
77
When did the left realist view of crime develop?
During the 1980s and 1990s
78
What do Lea and Young suggest is at the root of criminality?
Deprivation, specifically the feeling of being deprived compared to others
79
What are marginalized groups?
People that do not feel part of society and lack organizations to represent their interests
80
According to left realists, what is a subculture?
A collective response to the problem of relative deprivation
81
What do left realists believe is necessary to tackle crime?
To address the relationships between the public and police, and create a multi-agency approach
82
What is the stance of Mlovanovic regarding crime?
Accepts the government's definition of crime being street crime
83
What do right realist views correspond closely with?
The neo-conservative perspective
84
What did Wilson and Herrnstein propose in their biosocial theory of crime?
Crime is caused by a combination of biological and social factors
85
What does Charles Murray believe about crime rates?
Crime rates are influenced by the underclass's failure to adequately socialize their children
86
What does Ron Clarke assume about individuals and crime?
Individuals have free will and make choices to commit crime based on perceived benefits
87
What do right realists believe about the current costs of crime?
They are too low, making crime more attractive
88
What is the focus of crime hardening?
Making it harder for crimes to be committed
89
What does zero tolerance mean in the context of crime?
All criminal behavior must be addressed, no matter how minor
90
What is a criticism of right realist views regarding crime?
They ignore corporate and white collar crime
91
Fill in the blank: Left realists believe that _____ is necessary for addressing crime.
a multi-agency approach
92
True or False: Right realists believe it is beneficial to tackle the causes of crime.
False
93
What distinguishes realist approaches from other theories of crime?
Realist approaches look at the causes of crime and provide practical solutions
94
When did the left realist view of crime develop?
During the 1980s and 1990s
95
What do Lea and Young suggest is at the root of criminality?
Deprivation, specifically the feeling of being deprived compared to others
96
What are marginalized groups?
People that do not feel part of society and lack organizations to represent their interests
97
According to left realists, what is a subculture?
A collective response to the problem of relative deprivation
98
What do left realists believe is necessary to tackle crime?
To address the relationships between the public and police, and create a multi-agency approach
99
What is the stance of Mlovanovic regarding crime?
Accepts the government's definition of crime being street crime
100
What do right realist views correspond closely with?
The neo-conservative perspective
101
What did Wilson and Herrnstein propose in their biosocial theory of crime?
Crime is caused by a combination of biological and social factors
102
What does Charles Murray believe about crime rates?
Crime rates are influenced by the underclass's failure to adequately socialize their children
103
What does Ron Clarke assume about individuals and crime?
Individuals have free will and make choices to commit crime based on perceived benefits
104
What do right realists believe about the current costs of crime?
They are too low, making crime more attractive
105
What is the focus of crime hardening?
Making it harder for crimes to be committed
106
What does zero tolerance mean in the context of crime?
All criminal behavior must be addressed, no matter how minor
107
What is a criticism of right realist views regarding crime?
They ignore corporate and white collar crime
108
Fill in the blank: Left realists believe that _____ is necessary for addressing crime.
a multi-agency approach
109
True or False: Right realists believe it is beneficial to tackle the causes of crime.
False
110
What percentage of convictions are against women compared to men?
40% of convictions against women and 32% against men
111
What is the Chivalry Thesis?
The idea that the Criminal Justice System is biased in favor of women, leading to them being treated more leniently
112
Who proposed the Chivalry Thesis?
Pollack
113
What does the term 'double deviancy' refer to?
The concept that women committing crimes against traditional gender norms face additional scrutiny
114
According to Parsons, why do women commit less crime than men?
Women are socialized into domestic roles which limit their opportunities for crime
115
What is Heldensohn's explanation for lower female crime rates?
Women face more control and restrictions in public arenas, limiting their opportunities to commit crime
116
What does Carlen suggest about women's motivations for crime?
Women may turn to crime when they cannot access emotional rewards from traditional roles
117
Fill in the blank: Women are more likely to experience _______ than men, which affects their crime rates.
social exclusion
118
What does Walklate criticize in gender crime theories?
The assumption that gender roles are static and do not evolve
119
What is Freda Adler's perspective on female crime?
Female crime rates may increase due to reduced patriarchal control
120
What is Messerschmidt's theory on male crime?
Men commit crimes to assert their masculinity or prove their identity
121
What does the term 'hegemonic masculinity' refer to?
The dominant form of masculinity that is often associated with aggression and control
122
How does patriarchy influence female crime rates according to some theorists?
Patriarchal control can push women into criminal activities
123
Fill in the blank: Men are often stereotyped as being ________ in the context of crime.
aggressive
124
What is a criticism of the theories surrounding ethnic minority criminality?
Not all individuals from ethnic minorities engage in crime, and the theories may generalize too much
125
True or False: All men are considered criminals according to the theories discussed.
False
126
What is one limitation of explanations that focus solely on masculinity and crime?
They do not adequately explain why not all men commit crimes
127
What percentage of the prison population do Black people make up?
13.1%
## Footnote
Black people make up 3% of the total population.
128
What percentage of the prison population do White people make up?
77%
## Footnote
White people make up 6.5% of the total population.
129
How much more likely are ethnic minorities to be stopped and searched?
3 times more likely
130
Who proposed that BAME groups contain a disproportionate number of young people?
Moris
131
What is the term used to describe the police focus on ethnic minorities?
Over-policed and under-protected
132
Who argued that certain areas are more densely populated and experience higher crime rates due to lack of social cohesion?
Waddington et al 2004
133
What cultural phenomenon did Holdaway (1983) describe that can reinforce stereotypes among police officers?
Canteen Culture
134
What significant report resulted from the murder of Stephen Lawrence?
McPherson Report
135
What do Asian families impose that may explain lower rates of criminality among Asian communities?
Stricter controls over young people
136
According to Left Realism (Lea and Young), what do ethnic minorities suffer from that can lead to higher rates of criminality?
Relative deprivation
137
What factors did Sewell identify as responsible for crime among Black boys?
* Single-parent families
* Lack of positive role models
* Media influence
138
What does the term 'hyper-masculinity' refer to in the context of social class and crime?
Construction based on violence
139
True or False: The targeting of ethnic minorities by police has led to a decrease in crime rates among those groups.
False
140
What is a notable change in the police force since the publication of the McPherson Report?
Changing policies towards ethnic minorities
141
What does the statement 'not all ethnic minorities join subcultures' imply?
Not all subcultures are criminal in nature
142
Fill in the blank: Black crime tends to victimize _______.
Black people
143
What is a common misconception about the relationship between single-parent households and crime?
No causality established
144
Who is an example of a positive Black role model mentioned?
Barack Obama
145
What is the difference between street crime and white collar crime?
Street crime includes theft, assault, and shoplifting, while white collar crime involves crimes for personal gain such as embezzlement, fraud, and insider trading.
146
Define corporate crime.
Crimes committed by a company to gain an advantage, including health and safety violations and paying below minimum wage.
147
What is selective law enforcement?
The phenomenon where the police force treats different social classes unequally, with the working class more likely to be arrested for crimes.
148
How does selective law creation impact crime?
Laws are often created by individuals from the middle and upper classes, allowing them to manipulate the law for their benefit.
149
What does labeling and stereotypes imply about the working class?
The working class is often labeled as more criminogenic, leading to a perception that they are more likely to commit crimes.
150
What does Reiner's explanation for working class crime involve?
Reiner uses Merton's Strain theory to explain working class crime, suggesting that there are no limits to financial success, leading to crime even among the seemingly successful.
151
According to Murray, who is responsible for the majority of street crime?
The underclass is seen as responsible for the majority of street crime.
152
What does Hirschi suggest about the underclass and crime?
The underclass lacks impulse control and community bonds, which prevents them from committing crime.
153
How does Gordon explain working class crime in a capitalist system?
Gordon argues that consumerism encourages the working class to commit non-utilitarian crimes out of frustration from oppression.
154
What is Becker's perspective on working class crime statistics?
Becker suggests that the working class is unfairly targeted by law enforcement, resulting in higher crime statistics for this group.
155
What role do middle class individuals play in white collar crime according to Messerschmidt?
Middle class men may engage in white collar crime to demonstrate their masculinity.
156
Fill in the blank: Katz suggests that engaging in white collar crime can be linked to the idea of the _______.
excitement and adrenaline the acts may provide.
157
What is a limitation of the theories discussed regarding crime?
They do not explain why only some individuals or companies commit crimes.
158
Why is it difficult to obtain accurate crime statistics?
Many crimes are resolved in-house or through informal means rather than being reported to the police.
159
What is the difference between street crime and white collar crime?
Street crime includes theft, assault, and shoplifting, while white collar crime involves crimes for personal gain such as embezzlement, fraud, and insider trading.
160
Define corporate crime.
Crimes committed by a company to gain an advantage, including health and safety violations and paying below minimum wage.
161
What is selective law enforcement?
The phenomenon where the police force treats different social classes unequally, with the working class more likely to be arrested for crimes.
162
How does selective law creation impact crime?
Laws are often created by individuals from the middle and upper classes, allowing them to manipulate the law for their benefit.
163
What does labeling and stereotypes imply about the working class?
The working class is often labeled as more criminogenic, leading to a perception that they are more likely to commit crimes.
164
What does Reiner's explanation for working class crime involve?
Reiner uses Merton's Strain theory to explain working class crime, suggesting that there are no limits to financial success, leading to crime even among the seemingly successful.
165
According to Murray, who is responsible for the majority of street crime?
The underclass is seen as responsible for the majority of street crime.
166
What does Hirschi suggest about the underclass and crime?
The underclass lacks impulse control and community bonds, which prevents them from committing crime.
167
How does Gordon explain working class crime in a capitalist system?
Gordon argues that consumerism encourages the working class to commit non-utilitarian crimes out of frustration from oppression.
168
What is Becker's perspective on working class crime statistics?
Becker suggests that the working class is unfairly targeted by law enforcement, resulting in higher crime statistics for this group.
169
What role do middle class individuals play in white collar crime according to Messerschmidt?
Middle class men may engage in white collar crime to demonstrate their masculinity.
170
Fill in the blank: Katz suggests that engaging in white collar crime can be linked to the idea of the _______.
excitement and adrenaline the acts may provide.
171
What is a limitation of the theories discussed regarding crime?
They do not explain why only some individuals or companies commit crimes.
172
Why is it difficult to obtain accurate crime statistics?
Many crimes are resolved in-house or through informal means rather than being reported to the police.
173
What does the text suggest about media as a cause of crime?
Media messages are acted upon mindlessly by audiences
174
How can watching crime shows impact potential criminals?
Helps criminals hone their skills and learn how to be less detectable
175
What effect does increased adrenaline and endorphins have on behavior?
Leads to risky and criminal behavior
176
What phenomenon is observed during the opening weekends of Fast and Furious films?
Increase in traffic crimes
177
How does exposure to violence in media affect people's shock value?
Lowers their level of shock, making them more likely to commit violent acts
178
What do Left Realism and Strain Theory suggest about media?
Media provides unobtainable lifestyle ideas leading people to commit crime
179
What does 'Missing White Woman Syndrome' refer to?
The media's focus on white middle-class women fitting victim stereotypes
180
Define 'Moral Panic.'
Public anxiety or alarm in response to a perceived threat to moral standards
181
What are some criticisms of Moral Panic Theory?
Media causes exaggeration, attention, and amplification of deviance
182
What is the 'Fear of Crime Cycle'?
Media generates more fear of crime, leading to increased consumption of media
183
What examples of modern Moral Panics are mentioned?
* Black Muggings in the 1970s
* Video Nasties in the 1990s
184
What is the impact of globalisation on crime?
Creates new types of crime and increases uncertainty
185
Fill in the blank: A _______ is an instance of public anxiety about moral standards.
Moral Panic
186
True or False: The media has no effect on shaping public fear of crime.
False
187
What is meant by 'Reflexivity' in the context of media and crime?
The way media influences public perception and behavior regarding crime
188
What is the outcome of increased media consumption regarding crime?
People become more fearful and wary of crime
189
What is a characteristic of moral panics according to McRobbie and Thornton?
They are harder to start and often lack clear definitions
190
What is globalisation?
An ongoing process involving interconnected changes in the economic, cultural, social, and political spheres of society.
191
What does Held state about the globalisation of crime?
It is the growing interconnectedness of crime across states, leading to transnational organised crime.
192
What is Castells' argument regarding the economy?
There is now an economy of over £1 trillion per annum.
193
What are some strengths of studying globalisation and crime?
* Focuses on the newest, most alarming and serious types of crimes.
194
What is a major weakness in investigating global crime?
Difficult to investigate due to the secretive and global nature of crimes.
195
What is the estimated worth of the global drugs trade?
Over $300 billion per year.
196
Which countries are major cultivators of drugs?
* Colombia * Peru * Afghanistan
197
What is the estimated number of people trafficked to Western Europe annually?
Over half a million people.
198
What makes money laundering easier in the context of globalisation?
The relaxing of international banking laws.
199
What types of cyber crimes have increased due to globalisation?
* Cyber fraud * Cyber theft * Cyber terrorism * Cyber violence
200
What term does Glenny use to describe organised crime networks based on economic links?
'McMafia'.
201
What impact does Bauman suggest consumer culture has on crime?
It encourages individuals to engage in criminal activity to achieve an otherwise unobtainable lifestyle.
202
What do Lash and Ury argue about state controls over business?
Increased deregulation and fewer state controls allow corporations to act irresponsibly.
203
What is Taylor's view on globalisation and job opportunities?
Globalisation has led to greater job losses and fewer job opportunities.
204
What challenges arise from transnational crimes?
Requires cooperation between different law enforcement agencies and jurisdictional difficulties.
205
What does Taylor argue about inequality in the context of globalisation?
Globalisation creates new patterns of inequality, benefiting investors and transnational corporations while disadvantaging workers.
206
What does transgressive mean in the context of crime?
Looking at the wider definitions of crime, focusing on the harm caused rather than just breaking state laws.
## Footnote
This perspective includes environmental harm and its impacts on humanity.
207
Define anthropocentric.
Harm to the environment from the perspective of humanity.
## Footnote
Examples include pollution affecting water supply and causing diseases.
208
What is ecocentric?
Harm to any aspect of the environment is considered harm to all of it.
## Footnote
This includes crimes like animal cruelty and habitat destruction.
209
How does globalization relate to green crime?
Environmental crimes are global; a crime in one location can have worldwide effects.
## Footnote
This makes policing green crimes challenging.
210
Why is green crime hard to police?
An act may not be a crime in one location but can affect another, making it difficult to identify blame.
## Footnote
Jurisdictions may have different laws regarding environmental protection.
211
What is the traditional criminology view on green crime?
Defines it in terms of state or national law-breaking, not recognizing issues like global warming as crimes.
## Footnote
Focuses on patterns and causes of law-breaking.
212
What does transgressive criminology emphasize?
Focuses on actions that harm the physical environment, regardless of whether a law has been broken.
## Footnote
This perspective broadens the understanding of criminality.
213
What concept did Beck (1992) introduce regarding risk?
In today's society, we create new manufactured risks that harm the environment and have human consequences.
## Footnote
Global warming exemplifies a risk that is global rather than local.
214
What are the two types of green crime identified by Nigel South (2014)?
* Type 1: Primary Green Crime - Direct result of destruction and degradation of Earth's resources.
* Type 2: Secondary Green Crime - Result from environmental disasters.
## Footnote
Examples include water pollution and state violence against environmental groups.
215
Who are the typical victims of green crime according to Wolf?
Those in the developing world, the poor, and ethnic minorities.
## Footnote
They are often located in areas where toxic dumping occurs.
216
What does Wolf suggest about the perpetrators of green crime?
Individuals contribute cumulatively to environmental harm, which can lead to significant impacts over time.
## Footnote
Examples include littering and fly-tipping.
217
What does Santana (2002) point out about military pollution?
The military is one of the biggest institutional polluters through various activities.
## Footnote
This includes long-term environmental impacts from military operations.
218
What is a challenge in evaluating green crime?
There is a lack of agreed definitions, making it difficult to study and assess.
## Footnote
Research often relies on case studies.
219
Fill in the blank: Green crime can be accompanied by greater value judgments due to a lack of _______.
agreed definitions.
220
What is the definition of state crime according to Green and Ward (2005)?
'Illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by, or with the complicity of, state agencies.'
221
What does Chambliss define as state crime?
Acts defined by law as criminal and the jobs as representatives of the state.
222
What is the significance of international law in the context of state crime?
State crimes can occur on behalf of a state that violates international law.
223
What does Michalowski (1985) suggest about state crime?
State crime includes acts that are locally permissible but illegal.
224
According to Schwendinger (1975), what should state crime respect?
Basic human rights.
225
What types of state crime are identified by Eugene McLaughlin?
* Censorship
* Corruption
* Genocide
* Torture
* Imprisonment Without Trial
* Disappearance
226
What correlation is noted regarding corruption, war, conflict, and poverty?
There seems to be a correlation between corruption, war, conflict, and poverty.
227
What example of genocide is provided in the text?
Rwanda 1994 against the Hutus.
228
What is mentioned about the Khmer Rouge government in Cambodia?
It killed up to 1/5 of the entire population between 1975 and 1978.
229
What is the 'Culture of Denial' in relation to state crime?
* Stage 1: 'It didn't happen.'
* Stage 2: 'If it did happen, it is something else.'
* Stage 3: 'Even if it is what you say it is, it's justified.'
230
What does Neutralisation Theory suggest about state crime?
State crime arises from similar circumstances to those of citizen crime, integrating motivation, opportunity, and lack of controls.
231
What are the justifications for state crime according to Sykes and Matza (1957)?
* Denial of the victim
* Denial of injury
* Denial of responsibility
* Condemning the condemners
* Appeal to higher loyalty
232
What features of modern society does Bauman (1989) suggest make state crimes possible?
* Advancements of labor
* Affluence
* Science and technology
233
How are state crimes characterized compared to citizen crimes?
State crimes tend to be crimes of obedience rather than deviance.
234
What three features produce crimes of obedience according to Kelman and Hamilton?
* Authorisation
* Routinization
* Dehumanization
235
What is the left realist view of crime?
Crime is seen as deprivation and subcultures
236
Define relative deprivation in the context of crime.
Feeling deprived compared to others in society, leading to marginalization and formation of subcultures with deviant goals
237
What is the right realist view of crime?
Crime is viewed as a rational choice where benefits outweigh the costs of being caught
238
What factors does Murray argue contribute to youth delinquency?
The rise in single parent families and teen parents leading to lack of socialization into appropriate values
239
What is situational crime prevention?
Strategies designed to make it harder to commit crime by altering the environment
240
What is target hardening?
Implementing measures like bars, bolts, alarm systems, and hostile architecture to prevent crime
241
What does hostile architecture refer to?
Design elements that deter specific behaviors, such as park benches that prevent sleeping
242
Explain the displacement theory.
Crime prevention methods may not reduce crime overall but move it to different areas
243
What is a criticism of situational crime prevention?
It does not address corporate or white-collar crime and unfairly targets the working class
244
What is environmental crime prevention?
Improving local areas and addressing low-level criminal activity to reduce crime
245
What is zero tolerance policing?
Cracking down on small crimes to prevent escalation into more serious offenses
246
What does the broken windows policy entail?
Addressing minor offenses to prevent more serious crimes
247
What is the left realist approach to social and community crime prevention?
Addressing social inequalities that lead to crime to reduce crime rates
248
What are community action programs?
Initiatives like preschool programs aimed at preventing crime by fostering community
249
What does the troubled families program aim to do?
Intervention program designed to assist families in need to prevent crime
250
What assumption does the left realist approach make about society?
It assumes a value consensus exists, which can limit the effectiveness of community policies
251
True or False: The left realist approach addresses corporate crime effectively.
False
252
What are the key agencies of the Criminal Justice System?
* The police
* Crown Prosecution Service
* The Court System
* National Offender Management Service
* Youth Justice Board
## Footnote
These agencies play crucial roles in the enforcement and administration of justice.
253
What are the roles of the Criminal Justice System in preventing crime?
* Deterrence
* Retribution
* Rehabilitation
## Footnote
These roles are essential for maintaining public safety and order.
254
Which government department is responsible for protecting the public from terror, crime, and anti-social behaviour?
The Home Office
## Footnote
This department oversees crime reduction, policing, security, and counter-terrorism.
255
What does the Ministry of Justice manage?
The justice process from end to end
## Footnote
This includes criminal law, sentencing policy, and legal aid.
256
What perspectives do Functionalists have on the Criminal Justice System?
It is a vital institution that ensures social solidarity and cohesion by maintaining law and order
## Footnote
Functionalists believe in the positive role of the CJS in society.
257
How do Marxists view the Criminal Justice System?
As part of the oppression of the working class while appearing to be legitimate
## Footnote
Marxists emphasize the systemic inequalities within the CJS.
258
What is the Feminist perspective on the Criminal Justice System?
It is seen as a tool of oppression, with most members being men, leading to double victimization for women
## Footnote
Feminists argue that the CJS often fails to protect women effectively.
259
What is the role of the police in the Criminal Justice System?
To enforce the law by prosecuting and catching criminals
## Footnote
The police are the first point of contact in the criminal justice process.
260
What is the role of the courts in the Criminal Justice System?
To determine guilt and impose an appropriate sentence
## Footnote
Courts ensure that justice is served through fair trials.
261
Fill in the blank: The AG oversees the _______.
magistrates' courts, the Crown Court, the Appeals Courts, the Legal Services Commission, and the NOMS
## Footnote
The Attorney General (AG) plays a significant role in the judicial system.
262
True or False: The Criminal Justice System only focuses on punishment.
False
## Footnote
The CJS encompasses prevention, rehabilitation, and retribution.
263
What is the purpose of punishment according to Newburn?
To prevent future offending, make amends to victims, protect society, maintain boundaries, and provide retribution.
## Footnote
Key purposes include restorative justice, societal protection, boundary maintenance, and retribution.
264
What is restorative justice?
Forcing criminals to make amends to the victims they have harmed.
## Footnote
It focuses on repairing the harm caused by criminal behavior.
265
How does punishment serve to protect society?
By incapacitating offenders so they cannot harm others.
## Footnote
This is a key rationale for imprisonment.
266
What does boundary maintenance refer to in the context of punishment?
Reinforcing what is acceptable behavior in society.
## Footnote
It helps maintain social order.
267
What is meant by retribution in the context of punishment?
The belief that criminals deserve to be punished for their crimes, also known as 'just deserts'.
## Footnote
This perspective emphasizes moral accountability.
268
According to the text, what role do laws play in society?
They reflect ruling class ideology and are part of the repressive state apparatus.
## Footnote
This concept is associated with theorist Althusser.
269
What does Foucault argue about changing forms of punishment?
There has been a shift from sovereign power to disciplinary power.
## Footnote
This reflects changes in societal control mechanisms.
270
What is the concept of 'penal welfarism' as discussed by Garland?
A system where the criminal justice system aims to catch, punish, and rehabilitate offenders.
## Footnote
This approach was prevalent in the 1950s.
271
What does Garland say about the current era of punishment?
We have moved into a 'punitive state' enforcing a 'culture of control'.
## Footnote
This includes mass incarceration and transcarceration.
272
What does Rusche and Kirchheimer's approach to punishment emphasize?
Punishment as a form of social control and class domination.
## Footnote
This perspective links punishment to economic needs.
273
What is one argument in favor of prisons as a form of punishment?
They keep society safe from dangerous criminals.
## Footnote
This perspective emphasizes public safety.
274
What are some arguments against the effectiveness of prisons?
They create a school of crime, have high recidivism rates, and may not effectively deter reoffending.
## Footnote
These issues highlight systemic failures in rehabilitation.
275
Fill in the blank: The ultimate purpose of prison is to be the ultimate _______.
deterrent.
## Footnote
This aims to control crime and punish offenders.
276
What is the purpose of punishment according to Newburn?
To prevent future offending, make amends to victims, protect society, maintain boundaries, and provide retribution.
## Footnote
Key purposes include restorative justice, societal protection, boundary maintenance, and retribution.
277
What is restorative justice?
Forcing criminals to make amends to the victims they have harmed.
## Footnote
It focuses on repairing the harm caused by criminal behavior.
278
How does punishment serve to protect society?
By incapacitating offenders so they cannot harm others.
## Footnote
This is a key rationale for imprisonment.
279
What does boundary maintenance refer to in the context of punishment?
Reinforcing what is acceptable behavior in society.
## Footnote
It helps maintain social order.
280
What is meant by retribution in the context of punishment?
The belief that criminals deserve to be punished for their crimes, also known as 'just deserts'.
## Footnote
This perspective emphasizes moral accountability.
281
According to the text, what role do laws play in society?
They reflect ruling class ideology and are part of the repressive state apparatus.
## Footnote
This concept is associated with theorist Althusser.
282
What does Foucault argue about changing forms of punishment?
There has been a shift from sovereign power to disciplinary power.
## Footnote
This reflects changes in societal control mechanisms.
283
What is the concept of 'penal welfarism' as discussed by Garland?
A system where the criminal justice system aims to catch, punish, and rehabilitate offenders.
## Footnote
This approach was prevalent in the 1950s.
284
What does Garland say about the current era of punishment?
We have moved into a 'punitive state' enforcing a 'culture of control'.
## Footnote
This includes mass incarceration and transcarceration.
285
What does Rusche and Kirchheimer's approach to punishment emphasize?
Punishment as a form of social control and class domination.
## Footnote
This perspective links punishment to economic needs.
286
What is one argument in favor of prisons as a form of punishment?
They keep society safe from dangerous criminals.
## Footnote
This perspective emphasizes public safety.
287
What are some arguments against the effectiveness of prisons?
They create a school of crime, have high recidivism rates, and may not effectively deter reoffending.
## Footnote
These issues highlight systemic failures in rehabilitation.
288
Fill in the blank: The ultimate purpose of prison is to be the ultimate _______.
deterrent.
## Footnote
This aims to control crime and punish offenders.
289
What does Synopticon Surveillance mean?
Surveillance which may uncover damaging information on individuals
## Footnote
It allows for the filming of police wrongdoing.
290
What is Liquid Surveillance?
All the ways that we are monitored, including number plate recognition, store cards, and CCTV
## Footnote
It implies constant monitoring and awareness that can infringe on civil liberties.
291
What does the term 'Panopticon' refer to?
A prison design where prisoners have their own visible cells but cannot see the guards
## Footnote
This design creates uncertainty about whether they are being watched.
292
What is Self Surveillance?
People monitoring themselves and their behaviors
## Footnote
It is particularly prominent in new mothers who fear being judged as inadequate.
293
Who is associated with the concept of Surveillance Societies?
Thinker: Lyon
## Footnote
Modern society has reached a point where privacy is lacking, and our every move is monitored.
294
What are Disciplinary Societies according to Foucault?
Societies that exert control over the mind through surveillance
## Footnote
This has led to a Carceral Culture where various professionals monitor the population.
295
What does Synoptic Surveillance entail?
Everyone watching everyone else through social media and other platforms
## Footnote
It leads to greater self-surveillance and helps film police wrongdoing.
296
How does surveillance impact the fear of crime?
People feel less fear of being a victim when they are aware of surveillance
## Footnote
This awareness increases the likelihood of perpetrators being caught.
297
What is Actuarial Justice?
A new technology of power focused on prevention rather than rehabilitation
## Footnote
It involves using risk factors and profiling for decisions like stop and search.
298
Is surveillance considered a good form of social control?
Yes, it can help prevent crime
## Footnote
However, it can also be viewed as an oppressive form of control.
299
What is the Post Panoptical society according to Bauman and Lyon?
A society where we are aware of being monitored, which controls behavior
## Footnote
Liquid surveillance contributes to this awareness.
300
What did the Killburn Experiment reveal about CCTV?
CCTV can be both a protection and an erosion of civil liberties
## Footnote
It can be used by both defense and prosecution lawyers.
301
What conclusion did Norris reach about CCTV's effectiveness?
CCTV reduced crime in car parks but did little for other types of crime
## Footnote
This suggests limitations in its effectiveness.
302
What did Loveday and Gill find regarding surveillance?
Surveillance leads to an erosion of civil liberties
## Footnote
Every action is monitored, resulting in a lack of privacy.
303
What is the recent view of victims in relation to the Criminal Justice System (CJS)?
Victims are seen as consumers of the CJS and the CJS is urged to use victim surveys and support services.
## Footnote
This marks a shift in focus towards understanding victim needs and experiences.
304
What significant change occurred in the CJS in 2013?
Victims of Anti-Social Behavior (ASB) and low-level court punishment were allowed to select from a list of options.
## Footnote
This change aimed to enhance victim involvement in the justice process.
305
What does the 2002 National Crime Recording Standard entail?
It was adopted by all police forces in England and Wales to improve the accuracy of crime recording.
## Footnote
It emphasized victims' recollections and interpretations of evidence.
306
How does the United Nations define a victim?
A victim is defined as someone who has suffered harm, including mental, physical, or emotional impairment of their basic rights through acts or omissions that violate the law.
## Footnote
This definition encompasses various forms of victimization.
307
What does the term 'Victimization Law' imply?
It suggests that those most deprived and with the least material possessions are the most likely to be victims of crime.
## Footnote
This highlights socioeconomic factors influencing victimization.
308
What are traditional views of crime victims?
Victims are viewed as weak, innocent, blameless, female, and elderly.
## Footnote
These stereotypes can influence societal perceptions and responses to victims.
309
What statistical characteristics are noted about crime victims?
Victims are often male, aged 19-28, and from ethnic minority backgrounds.
## Footnote
This demographic information reflects patterns in victimization.
310
What patterns are observed in victimization across different demographics?
Working class and underclass individuals are more likely to be victims of crime, while middle class individuals face less risk.
## Footnote
This is influenced by the areas where these groups live.
311
Who are the most likely victims of theft, violent crime, and sexual crimes?
Teens are the most likely to be victims of these types of crimes.
## Footnote
This age group faces unique vulnerabilities.
312
Which demographic is most likely to be victims of abuse?
The elderly are the most likely to be victims of abuse.
## Footnote
This highlights the vulnerabilities associated with aging.
313
What percentage of homicide victims are male?
70% of homicide victims are male.
## Footnote
This statistic underscores gender disparities in violent crime.
314
What types of crimes are women more likely to be victims of?
Women are more likely to be victims of sexual crimes, domestic violence, and trafficking.
## Footnote
These issues are critical to understanding gendered victimization.
315
What is the estimated number of hate crimes per year according to the Home Office?
Approximately 106,000 hate crimes occur per year, averaging 300 per day.
## Footnote
This statistic highlights the prevalence of hate-related offenses.
316
What emotions may victims experience as a result of victimization?
Victims may feel sleeplessness, fear of revictimization, PTSD, shock, anxiety, and poor health.
## Footnote
These reactions can significantly impact victims' lives.
317
What does 'victim precipitation' refer to?
It refers to how victims may have inadvertently contributed to their own victimization.
## Footnote
This concept can be controversial and is often criticized.
318
What is meant by the term 'labeling' in the context of victimization?
Labeling involves the denial or attachment of negative labels to victims, affecting their social identity.
## Footnote
This can lead to stigmatization and further victimization.
319
What is the common misconception about victims in relation to their behavior?
Victims' behavior is often scrutinized to discredit them or blame them for their victimization.
## Footnote
This reflects societal attitudes towards responsibility and victimhood.
