Diabetes type 1 and 2 Flashcards
(173 cards)
1
Q
What is diabetes insipidus related to?
A
Insufficiency of antidiuretic hormone, leading to polyuria and polydipsia.
2
Q
How common is diabetes insipidus in Australia?
A
Affects approximately 6 in 100,000 Australians.
3
Q
What does the term diabetes mean?
A
‘Overflow’, or an increased urine volume.
4
Q
What are the two forms of diabetes insipidus?
A
- Neurogenic (central) form
- Nephrogenic form
5
Q
What causes the neurogenic form of diabetes insipidus?
A
Absence of antidiuretic hormone due to damage or inflammation to the hypothalamus, pituitary stalk, or posterior pituitary.
6
Q
What are some causes of damage leading to neurogenic diabetes insipidus?
A
- Brain tumours
- Aneurysm
- Pituitary surgery
7
Q
What causes the nephrogenic form of diabetes insipidus?
A
Inadequate response of the renal tubules to antidiuretic hormone.
8
Q
What diseases can lead to nephrogenic diabetes insipidus?
A
- Pyelonephritis
- Drugs (particularly lithium)
- Methoxyflurane anaesthesia
9
Q
What is a psychogenic form of diabetes insipidus?
A
Caused by chronic ingestion of extremely large quantities of fluid, resolving with effective management of fluid intake.
10
Q
What is a key symptom of diabetes insipidus?
A
Polyuria (excretion of large volumes of dilute urine).
11
Q
What happens to plasma osmolality in diabetes insipidus?
A
It increases, leading to concentrated blood.
12
Q
What stimulates the thirst mechanism in individuals with diabetes insipidus?
A
Insufficient antidiuretic hormone secretion.
13
Q
What is the typical urine output for an individual with diabetes insipidus?
A
More than 12 L/day, with a low specific gravity.
14
Q
What are the clinical manifestations of diabetes insipidus?
A
- Polyuria
- Nocturia
- Continuous thirst
- Polydipsia
- Low urine concentration
- High–normal plasma osmolality
15
Q
What is the significance of the water deprivation test in diabetes insipidus?
A
Plasma osmolality is always higher than urine osmolality after the test.
16
Q
What indicates nephrogenic diabetes insipidus in plasma antidiuretic hormone levels?
A
High levels of plasma antidiuretic hormone.
17
Q
How is neurogenic diabetes insipidus diagnosed?
A
An increase in urinary osmolality after administration of desmopressin following water deprivation.
18
Q
What is the initial treatment for neurogenic diabetes insipidus?
A
Intravenous fluid resuscitation to match urine output.
19
Q
What is the long-term treatment for neurogenic diabetes insipidus?
A
Administration of desmopressin.
20
Q
What is the main form of therapy for nephrogenic diabetes insipidus?
A
Maintaining adequate fluid intake.
21
Q
What is diabetes mellitus?
A
A chronic metabolic disease associated with complications from prolonged high glucose levels in the blood.
Complications include blindness, neuropathy, kidney disease, heart disease, and stroke.
22
Q
What is hyperglycaemia?
A
Excess glucose in the bloodstream.
It occurs when the body cannot maintain normal blood glucose levels.
23
Q
What are the two main causes of diabetes?
A
- Insufficient or no release of insulin (insulin deficiency)
- Ineffective response to insulin (insulin resistance)
24
Q
What characterizes Type 1 diabetes?
A
Complete destruction of pancreatic islet cells leading to insulin deficiency.
Often diagnosed around puberty and requires insulin therapy.
25
What is Type 2 diabetes primarily characterized by?
Insulin resistance at target cells, often accompanied by increased insulin production (hyperinsulinaemia).
26
What is gestational diabetes?
Diabetes first recognized during pregnancy, often resolving after childbirth, but increases the risk for Type 2 diabetes later.
## Footnote
It is characterized by insulin resistance due to hormonal changes.
27
What is metabolic syndrome?
A cluster of risk factors, including abdominal obesity and high blood pressure, that may develop before Type 2 diabetes.
28
What is the estimated prevalence of diabetes in Australia?
1 in 20 people, approximately 5% of the population.
29
What are the three main tests used to diagnose Type 2 diabetes?
* Fasting blood glucose
* Glycated haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c)
* Oral glucose tolerance test
30
What fasting blood glucose level indicates diabetes?
≥ 7.0 mmol/L.
31
What are the clinical symptoms suggestive of diabetes?
* Excessive urination (polyuria)
* Excessive thirst (polydipsia)
* Excessive hunger (polyphagia)
* Lethargy
* Frequent infections
* Blurred vision
* Loss of sensation in hands/feet
* Poor wound healing
* Unintentional weight loss
32
What is pre-diabetes?
A condition where glucose homeostasis is between normal and diabetic levels, indicating a risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.
33
What factors lead to hyperglycaemia in diabetes?
* Ingestion of total carbohydrates
* Production of glucose by the liver (glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis)
34
What is glycosuria?
Presence of excess glucose in urine due to the inability of the kidneys to reabsorb it.
35
What are the classical symptoms of diabetes?
* Polyuria
* Polydipsia
* Polyphagia
36
What is the relationship between hyperinsulinaemia and insulin resistance?
Insulin is ineffective, leading to high blood glucose levels and stimulating further insulin production, resulting in hyperinsulinaemia.
37
What are common clinical manifestations of Type 2 diabetes?
* Recurrent infections
* Genital pruritus
* Visual changes
* Paraesthesias
* Fatigue
38
What are the mechanisms for recurrent infections in diabetes?
Increased glucose levels stimulate microorganism growth, and impaired blood supply hinders healing.
39
What triggers the fatigue experienced in diabetes?
Metabolic changes leading to poor nutrient use and hyperglycaemic episodes.
40
What happens to pancreatic beta cells in unmanaged Type 2 diabetes?
They can become fatigued and unable to produce sufficient insulin.
41
What is the definition of insulin resistance?
An ineffective response to insulin at the target cells, leading to high blood glucose levels.
42
What is insulin resistance?
Failure of target cells (brain, liver, muscle, fat) to respond adequately to insulin
## Footnote
Insulin resistance leads to increased insulin production by the pancreas to lower blood glucose levels, resulting in hyperglycaemia.
43
What happens to pancreatic beta cells in type 2 diabetes?
Progressive decrease in size and number due to persistent hyperglycaemia and excessive insulin production
## Footnote
This can lead to apoptosis and diminished insulin production.
44
What is hyperinsulinaemia?
High levels of circulating insulin due to insulin resistance
## Footnote
It results from the pancreas producing more insulin in response to high blood glucose levels.
45
What are the consequences of insulin resistance?
Hyperglycaemia, inability to efficiently use glucose or fats for energy
## Footnote
This may lead to energy toxicity and conditions like fatty liver.
46
Fill in the blank: In type 2 diabetes, beta cells undergo ______ due to excessive insulin production.
apoptosis
47
What are the main symptoms of hyperglycaemia?
Increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue
## Footnote
These symptoms arise due to high blood glucose levels.
48
What is the relationship between obesity and type 2 diabetes?
Obesity, particularly abdominal obesity, is the most powerful risk factor for type 2 diabetes
## Footnote
Obesity leads to insulin resistance and increased risk of developing diabetes.
49
How is type 2 diabetes typically diagnosed?
Blood tests measuring HbA1c, fasting blood glucose, or oral glucose tolerance test
## Footnote
Diagnosis often involves assessment of symptoms and risk factors.
50
What dietary approaches have shown effectiveness in reversing type 2 diabetes?
Bariatric surgery, very low-calorie diets, very low-carbohydrate diets
## Footnote
Among these, very low-carbohydrate diets are considered the safest and most accessible.
51
What defines diabetes remission?
Maintaining an HbA1c < 6.5% without anti-glycaemic medications except metformin
## Footnote
This indicates effective management of blood glucose levels.
52
What is the impact of physical activity on diabetes?
Decreases progression from pre-diabetes to type 2 diabetes and improves insulin effectiveness
## Footnote
Resistance training is particularly beneficial for glucose uptake.
53
True or False: Most Australians diagnosed with diabetes meet the recommended level of physical activity.
False
## Footnote
75% of Australians diagnosed with diabetes do not meet activity recommendations.
54
What is the role of adipocytokines in type 2 diabetes?
They contribute to insulin resistance and beta cell death
## Footnote
Produced by intraabdominal fat, they include TNF-α and IL-1β.
55
List some risk factors for the development of type 2 diabetes.
* Age over 35
* Overweight or obese
* Family history of type 2 diabetes
* Diagnosed with metabolic syndrome
* History of gestational diabetes
## Footnote
These factors interact with metabolic, genetic, and environmental influences.
56
What does a body mass index (BMI) of ≥ 30 indicate?
Obesity
## Footnote
BMI is a screening tool but should be used cautiously for individual assessments.
57
What is the significance of waist circumference in assessing diabetes risk?
It is a better indicator of health-related risk due to body size than BMI
## Footnote
Increased waist size indicates excess fat storage in the abdominal region.
58
Fill in the blank: Persistent hyperglycaemia contributes to the ______ of pancreatic beta cells.
destruction
59
What are ectopic fats, and why are they significant in type 2 diabetes?
Fat accumulation in non-adipose tissues, associated with insulin resistance
## Footnote
Examples include lipid accumulation in the liver and pancreatic islets.
60
What are common dietary factors associated with both obesity and diabetes?
* High intake of refined carbohydrates
* High intake of oils
* Physical inactivity
* Smoking
* Dyslipidaemia
## Footnote
These factors contribute to both conditions.
61
What is 'diabesity'?
The co-occurrence of obesity and diabetes
## Footnote
Modifying risk factors for one condition usually improves the other.
62
What percentage of Australians aged 15 and over achieve the recommended level of physical activity?
70%
## Footnote
This statistic highlights the impact of modern sedentary lifestyles on physical activity levels.
63
What is the impact of physical activity on individuals with diabetes?
Improves glycaemic control and reduces insulin resistance
## Footnote
Despite its benefits, 75% of diagnosed Australians do not meet activity recommendations.
64
What are examples of whole foods?
* Meat
* Fish
* Seafood
* Poultry
* Eggs
* Cheese
* Milk
* Yoghurt
* Nuts
* Seeds
* Legumes
* Whole grains
* Vegetables
* Fruits
## Footnote
Whole foods are minimally processed and healthier than highly processed foods.
65
What are examples of highly processed foods?
* Baked goods
* Refined cereals
* Sweetened yoghurts
* Ice-cream
* Milkshakes
* Soft drinks
* Cordials
* Juices
* Chips
* Lollies
* Chocolate
## Footnote
These foods are linked to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.
66
What is the glycaemic load?
A measure that considers the amount of carbohydrates in a portion of food and how quickly it raises blood glucose levels
## Footnote
Calculated by multiplying glycaemic index by grams of carbohydrates, divided by 100.
67
What are sugar-sweetened beverages associated with?
* Obesity
* Type 2 diabetes
* Heart disease
* Kidney diseases
* Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
* Tooth decay
* Gout
## Footnote
These beverages cause rapid increases in blood glucose levels.
68
What is the effect of smoking on diabetes risk?
Increases risk by 30–40%
## Footnote
Smoking complicates blood glucose control in all types of diabetes.
69
What are the indicators of pre-diabetes?
* Impaired fasting glucose
* Impaired glucose tolerance
## Footnote
These indicate severe insulin resistance and a risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes.
70
What is metabolic syndrome?
A cluster of symptoms including abdominal obesity and at least two of the following: impaired fasting glucose, hypertension, high triglycerides, or low HDL-cholesterol
## Footnote
It increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.
71
What is the goal of diabetes treatment?
Improve glycaemic control towards normal blood glucose levels (euglycaemia)
## Footnote
Target fasting blood glucose levels are 4–7 mmol/L and HbA 1c levels ≤ 7.0%.
72
What is the most effective dietary intervention for diabetes management?
A low-carbohydrate diet (< 130 grams or < 26% total energy from carbohydrates)
## Footnote
Focuses on whole-food sources of proteins, healthy fats, and low-glycaemic load carbohydrates.
73
What are biguanides, and what is the most well-known medication in this group?
A class of medications that includes metformin, commonly used as a first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes
## Footnote
Metformin increases glucose uptake and reduces hepatic glucose production.
74
What are sulfonylureas and their function?
Medications that increase insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells
## Footnote
They can cause hypoglycaemia if dietary patterns change unexpectedly.
75
What role does magnesium play in diabetes?
Important for insulin secretion and regulation of glucose homeostasis
## Footnote
Magnesium deficiency is strongly associated with type 2 diabetes.
76
What is the HbA 1c test used for?
To diagnose type 2 diabetes and indicate average blood glucose levels over about 3 months
## Footnote
A diagnosis of diabetes is made when HbA 1c is ≥ 6.5%.
77
What are the potential side effects of thiazolidinediones (TZDs)?
* Water retention
* Oedema
* Weight gain
* Increased risk of osteoporosis
* Possible bladder cancer risk
## Footnote
Rosiglitazone has been used less frequently due to myocardial infarction concerns.
78
True or False: Acarbose is commonly used in Australia for diabetes management.
False
## Footnote
Gastrointestinal side effects, such as flatulence and diarrhoea, limit its use.
79
What is the risk associated with pioglitazone?
Higher risk of developing bladder cancer
80
What is the primary action of acarbose?
Slows the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates
81
What are common gastrointestinal side effects of acarbose?
* Flatulence
* Diarrhoea
82
In the event of hypoglycaemia, which treatment should a patient on acarbose respond to?
Glucose (oral or IV)
83
What are the two types of incretin medications?
* DPP4 inhibitors
* GLP-1 receptor agonists
84
Name four DPP4 inhibitors.
* Sitagliptin
* Saxagliptin
* Linagliptin
* Vildagliptin
85
What is the mechanism of action of DPP4 inhibitors?
Inhibit DPP4 enzyme and block glucagon release
86
What are the effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists?
* Lower blood glucose levels
* Aid in weight loss
* Help with satiety
87
What is the primary action of sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors?
Prevent glucose reabsorption in the kidneys
88
What are some side effects of SGLT-2 inhibitors?
* Weight loss
* Slight drop in blood pressure
89
What serious risk is associated with SGLT-2 inhibitors?
Euglycaemic ketoacidosis
90
What should SGLT-2 inhibitors be stopped during?
* Dehydration
* Peri-operative period
* Very low-carbohydrate diet
91
What is the condition known as maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY)?
A subset of type 2 diabetes with a strong genetic association
92
What hormone is produced by the beta cells in the pancreas?
Insulin
93
What is the role of insulin in the body?
Regulates metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
94
What happens in type 1 diabetes regarding insulin production?
Beta cells are destroyed, leading to no insulin production
95
What is the previous term for type 1 diabetes?
Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
96
What is the previous term for type 2 diabetes?
Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
97
What can happen to beta cells in type 2 diabetes over time?
They may 'burn out' and undergo apoptosis
98
What is the typical duration of action for insulin formulations?
From rapid onset (around 15 minutes) to 24 hours
99
Why can't insulin be given orally?
It would be digested and not reach the blood as intact insulin
100
What is lipodystrophy?
Hypertrophy or atrophy of subcutaneous tissue from regular injections
101
What is the Somogyi effect?
Hypoglycaemia followed by rebound hyperglycaemia
102
What causes the dawn phenomenon?
Nocturnal elevations of growth hormone
103
What is the most common method for self-monitoring blood glucose levels?
Glucometer finger-prick test
104
What does measuring glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) indicate?
Average glucose control over the previous 3 months
105
What is the typical target HbA1c level for diabetes management?
Less than or equal to 7% (52 mmol/mol)
106
What are the major acute complications of diabetes?
* Hypoglycaemia
* Diabetic ketoacidosis
* Hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state
107
Who is at risk for hypoglycaemia?
* Individuals with type 1 diabetes
* Individuals with rapidly fluctuating blood glucose levels
* Individuals with type 2 diabetes using sulfonylureas or insulin
108
What are typical symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis?
* Malaise
* Dry mouth
* Polyuria
* Polydipsia
* Weight loss
* Nausea
* Abdominal pain
109
What is the typical onset of hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state?
Slowest onset
110
What is hypoglycaemia?
Hypoglycaemia, or ‘hypo’ for short, is the term used for low blood glucose levels in people with diabetes.
111
What is the general definition of hypoglycaemia in terms of blood glucose levels?
Blood glucose levels less than 4.0 mmol/L.
112
What can cause symptoms of hypoglycaemia at physiologically normal blood glucose levels?
If these levels are much lower than what is usual for the individual.
113
What typically results in hypoglycaemia?
An excess of insulin that is produced or injected in response to high blood glucose levels.
114
Who is more likely to experience hypoglycaemia?
People who use insulin injections and those treated with sulfonylurea therapy.
115
What is insulin shock?
Hypoglycaemia in diabetes is sometimes called insulin shock or insulin reaction.
116
What factors can contribute to hypoglycaemia?
* More exercise than planned
* Excessive alcohol consumption
117
Who are considered high-risk patients for hypoglycaemia?
* Older adults
* Those with renal impairment
* People taking multiple daily injections
* Regular alcohol drinkers
* Recently hospitalized patients
118
What are the categories of hypoglycaemia based on severity?
* Mild
* Moderate
* Severe
119
What symptoms are associated with mild hypoglycaemia?
* Tachycardia
* Pallor
* Sweating
* Tremors
* Hunger
* Restlessness
120
What blood glucose level is considered a medical emergency due to hypoglycaemia?
2.5 mmol/L or lower.
121
What is the immediate treatment for hypoglycaemia?
Provide an immediate replacement of glucose.
122
What is hyperglycaemia?
A clinical feature of diabetes characterized by high blood glucose levels.
123
What are some symptoms of untreated hyperglycaemia?
* Neurological changes
* Fatigue
* Blurred vision
* Headache
* Nausea
* Vomiting
124
What are two specific conditions related to hyperglycaemia?
* Diabetic ketoacidosis
* Hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state
125
What is diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)?
A serious complication characterized by very high, uncontrolled levels of glucose and ketones, and inadequate insulin.
126
What typically triggers diabetic ketoacidosis?
Stress such as an illness or infection, or insufficient or omitted insulin therapy.
127
What is the blood pH level associated with diabetic ketoacidosis?
Below 7.3.
128
What is a classical symptom of diabetic ketoacidosis?
Acetone breath, which smells sweet and fruity.
129
What is hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state (HHS)?
An uncommon but significant complication of type 2 diabetes characterized by extremely high blood glucose and dehydration.
130
What is the mortality rate associated with hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state?
Approximately 15%.
131
What distinguishes hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state from diabetic ketoacidosis?
In HHS, there is sufficient insulin to prevent the breakdown of fat stores, hence ketoacidosis is avoided.
132
What are chronic complications of diabetes?
Damage to various body organs over time due to persistent high blood glucose levels.
133
What are the three categories of diabetes-related complications?
* Microvascular complications
* Macrovascular complications
* Neuropathies
134
What are the main organs affected by diabetes complications?
* Brain
* Eyes
* Heart
* Kidneys
* Neurons
* Peripheral tissues
135
What is the role of lifestyle management in diabetes care?
To substantially reduce the risk of complications.
136
What leads to microvascular disease due to hyperglycaemia?
Thickening of the capillary basement membrane and endothelial hyperplasia.
137
What is the common lipid profile in individuals with diabetes?
* Elevated triglycerides
* High LDL cholesterol
* Low HDL cholesterol
138
What is the potential consequence of untreated diabetic ketoacidosis?
Coma and death.
139
What is the treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis?
Replacement of insulin, fluids, potassium, and bicarbonate.
140
What is the difference between diabetic ketoacidosis and nutritional ketosis?
Nutritional ketosis is a normal state with adequate insulin and normal blood glucose levels.
141
What is a common profile of dyslipidaemia in individuals with diabetes?
Elevated triglycerides and LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol
## Footnote
This lipid profile is more atherogenic compared to those without diabetes.
142
What role does high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol play in cardiovascular health?
Protects vessels
## Footnote
Low concentrations are found in individuals with diabetes.
143
What is the relationship between hypertension and atherosclerosis?
Hypertension increases vulnerability to atherosclerosis
## Footnote
It is one of the risk factors for cardiovascular diseases.
144
What is the most common cause of death in individuals with type 2 diabetes?
Coronary heart disease
## Footnote
This is due to insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, and endothelial dysfunction.
145
True or False: The risk of coronary heart disease in people with diabetes is lower than in the general population.
False
## Footnote
The risk is higher, even when considering hypertension and dyslipidaemia.
146
What percentage of individuals with diabetes experience myocardial infarction?
20%
## Footnote
This is a significant risk factor for death in diabetes.
147
What is the survival rate for individuals with diabetes after a massive stroke?
Typically shorter than for those without diabetes
## Footnote
Hypertension and hyperglycaemia are risk factors.
148
What can cause temporary blurring of vision in individuals with diabetes?
Hyperglycaemia
## Footnote
Accumulation of sorbitol in tissues like the lens contributes.
149
Name two common eye conditions associated with diabetes.
* Cataracts
* Diabetic retinopathy
## Footnote
These are significant diabetic eye diseases.
150
What is diabetic retinopathy?
Changes to retinal blood vessels causing hemorrhage or fluid leakage
## Footnote
It is influenced by multiple factors including metabolic control.
151
What stage of diabetic retinopathy shows no apparent changes?
Stage I: No apparent retinopathy
## Footnote
There are no diabetes-related changes to the retina.
152
What characterizes Stage III of diabetic retinopathy?
Increased retinal capillary permeability, vein dilation, and hemorrhages
## Footnote
This stage shows moderate non-proliferative changes.
153
What is the leading cause of blindness for individuals aged 20–64 years?
Diabetic retinopathy
## Footnote
Up to 80% of people with diabetes for 20 years may develop it.
154
What is microalbuminuria?
Small amounts of albumin in urine indicating renal dysfunction
## Footnote
It is the first manifestation of kidney damage.
155
What is the most common cause of kidney failure?
Diabetes
## Footnote
Diabetic nephropathy is a major contributor.
156
What are the early renal changes in diabetes?
* Glomerular enlargement
* Basement membrane thickening
## Footnote
These changes occur early and can precede clinical symptoms.
157
What condition is closely linked with type 2 diabetes and can lead to liver failure?
Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
## Footnote
It may progress to cirrhosis.
158
What is diabetic neuropathy?
Neuron degeneration affecting peripheral nerves
## Footnote
It is the most common complication of diabetes.
159
List three common symptoms of peripheral neuropathy.
* Numbness
* Tingling
* Decreased sensation in the feet
## Footnote
These symptoms increase the risk of foot injuries.
160
What is a major risk factor for developing foot ulcers in diabetes?
Diabetic peripheral neuropathy
## Footnote
This leads to loss of protective pain sensation.
161
What are common infections that individuals with diabetes are at higher risk for?
* Lower respiratory tract infections
* Urinary tract infections
* Bacterial skin infections
## Footnote
The risk increases with recurrent infections.
162
What is the role of glycated haemoglobin in diabetes-related infections?
Impedes oxygen release to tissues
## Footnote
This increases tissue susceptibility to infection.
163
What is a classic neuropathic diabetic foot ulcer?
Severe ulceration through layers of the skin, difficult to treat
## Footnote
This condition is commonly associated with diabetes and can lead to serious complications.
164
What is the pathogenesis of leg gangrene?
A consequence of vascular and neural changes, aggravated by infection and traumatic injury
## Footnote
Gangrene can lead to severe health complications and may require amputation.
165
What impact do amputations and diabetic foot ulcers have on quality of life?
Severely reduce quality of life and have major impacts on health-related problems, disability, and premature death
## Footnote
This is particularly concerning for populations in remote areas and lower socioeconomic groups.
166
Who is at the highest risk for amputations due to diabetes?
People living in very remote areas, in the lowest socioeconomic groups, and among Indigenous Australians
## Footnote
Approximately half of all lower-limb amputations in New Zealand are due to diabetes.
167
How does the mortality rate of people with diabetes compare to those without?
Higher mortality rate; twice as likely to die over 5 years than those with normal glucose tolerance
## Footnote
Diabetes contributed to about 16,700 deaths in Australia in 2018.
168
What percentage of all deaths in Australia in 2018 was contributed by diabetes?
10.5%
## Footnote
This includes both underlying and associated causes of death due to diabetes.
169
How many deaths were directly attributed to diabetes in Australia in 2018?
Approximately 4,700 deaths
## Footnote
This represents 28% of all diabetes-related deaths.
170
What was the rate of diabetes-related mortality among Indigenous Australians compared to non-Indigenous Australians?
Four times as high; 210 vs. 52 per 100,000 population
## Footnote
This indicates significant health disparities related to diabetes.
171
What percentage of all deaths in New Zealand are directly attributable to type 2 diabetes?
Almost 6%
## Footnote
This highlights the serious impact of diabetes on public health in New Zealand.
172
What is the leading cause of death in people with diabetes?
Cardiovascular disease
## Footnote
There is a greater than two-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease mortality in those with diabetes and pre-diabetes.
173
What percentage of all deaths in Australia over a 5-year period were due to cardiovascular disease?
Approximately 34%
## Footnote
Two-thirds of these deaths occurred in people with diabetes or pre-diabetes.
