EQ2 MIS Flashcards

Question

Iceland's degree of isolation: Neutrality and political stance

Answer 1

Neutral in many global conflicts- avoiding world wars and large scale political conflicts. - Despite this, it is still a member of NATO

Answer 2

- Deeply integrated into the global economy as a major financial and business centre - Member of ASEAN- maintaining strong, diplomatic ties around the world (TRADE TIES)

Answer 3

- Located at the crossroads of major global shipping routes in South East Asia - It sits at the southern tip of the Malay peninsula- making it a natural hub for trade and travel

Answer 4

- Has one of the busiest ports in the world- connecting it to global markets - Changi airport is a major international hub - Direct flights to almost every continent- around 1 flight every 80seconds - A key temporary stop for connecting flights from Europe to South east Asia, such as Thailand.

Answer 5

1) Migrants help address labour shortages, especially as Iceland has a small population (about 380,000) 2) Depends on migrant workers in tourism, fishing, agriculture, and healthcare—sectors that have grown recently. 3) Migration helps sustain population growth and supports rural communities that would otherwise decline due to youth moving to cities. 4) Migration is complementary—not central to national identity, but increasingly important for economic sectors and rural development.

Answer 6

1) Highly dependent on migrant labour, especially in construction, domestic work, healthcare, and services. 2) Migrants are critical to Singapore’s economic growth and competitiveness, helping to keep labour costs low in low-skilled sectors while also filling high-skilled jobs in finance, IT, and research. 3) Migration offsets low birth rates and an ageing population, helping maintain a productive labour force. Without immigration, Singapore's population would shrink, threatening long-term economic stability. 4) Long-term strategy includes attracting global talent while maintaining social cohesion.

Answer 7

1) Colonial Legacy - Rwanda was colonised by Germany (1987-1916) and later by Belgium (1916-1962) under a League of Nations mandate. - Belgium rule deepened ethnic divisions, which later fuelled conflict and instability .

Answer 8

Foreign Interventions and Influence - Rwanda has faced interference with neighbouring countries, especially during and after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi - The democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has accused Rwanda of backing rebel groups in territory, leading to regional tensions.

Answer 9

Refugee crisis and border security - Conflicts in Rwanda (before and after the genocide) led to mass refugee movements, affecting sovereignty as armed groups operated from neighbouring countries - The Democraticforces for the liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), a rebel group based in the DRC, has threatened Rwanda's security.

Answer 10

- The international criminal tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) was established by the UN to prosecute genocide crimes, which some saw as an external interference in Rwanda's affairs. - The Rwandan government has resisted external pressures, especially from Western nations, regarding governance and human rights issues.

Answer 11

Sovereignty refers to a state's full control over its territory and political affairs without external interference. Rwanda has faced sovereignty challenges in various ways.

Answer 12

Legitimacy refers to the acceptance and recognition of a government by its people and the international community. Rwanda has faced several legitimacy challanges.

Answer 13

Ethnic tensions and political exclusion: - The colonial system favoured the Tutsi minority, creating resentment along the Hutu majority. - After independence in 1962- a Hutu-led government took over, leading to political exclusion of the Tutsi - The 1994 genocide resulted in the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), led by Paul Kagame, taking power- however, political tensions remained.

Answer 14

International perception - While Rwanda is praised for economic progress and stability, critics argue that it comes at the cost of political freedoms - Accusations of Rwanda's involvement in DRC conflicts have also affected its international reputation.

Answer 15

Media and hUMAN RIGHTS CONCERNS - The government heavily regulates the media, limiting dissenting voices. * Some opposition leaders and journalists have been arrested or disappeared, raising concerns about democratic legitimacy.

Answer 16

Elections and political Exclusion - The RPF government has been accused of suppressing opposition parties and limiting political freedoms. - Elections have been criticised for lacking true competition, with Kagame winning by large margins (e.g., 98.79% in 2017).

Answer 17

The Rwandan Genocide occurred over approximately 100 days from April to July 1994, during which an estimated 800,000 to 1 million Tutsi and moderate Hutu were systematically slaughtered by extremist Hutu militias, mainly the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi.

Answer 18

- Rwanda had long-standing ethnic tensions between the Hutu majority and the Tutsi minority. - These tensions were exacerbated by colonial rule (mainly Belgian), which favoured the Tutsi and sowed division. - Post-independence (1962), power shifted to the Hutu, and periodic violence against Tutsis occurred.

Answer 19

- A Hutu uprising killed many Tutsi - caused 300k to seek refuge outside Rwanda - lASTED UNTIL 1961 - Signified the end of the Tutsi rule - Marked the beginning of Hutu power and directly preceded Rwanda's independence from Belgium

Answer 20

- Tutsi-led RPF launched its attack on Rwanda from Uganda (neighbouring country) - Attacks displaced thousands of Rwandans, creating insecurity and fear - used to construct all tutsis as enemies of the state. Hutus who did not agree with the governments extremist policies were painted as traitors - Ethnic stratification was exacerbated and Hutu ideology strengthened.

Answer 21

4th of July

Answer 22

RPF officials and president Habyarimana signed a ceasefire and power-sharing agreement- the Arusha Peace records. - aim was to end the 3-year long ciil war, integrate Tutsi exiles back into Rwandan society and democratise the Rwandan government.

Answer 23

- The United Nations assistance mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) - In 1994, the UN commander sent a warning to the UN Security Council about the stockpile of weapons and increase in violence between the Hutus and Tutsis. - The warning went unheeded.

Answer 24

April 1994- lane crash carrying president of Rwanda and Burundi was shot down- killed (both Hutu) - Assassination was blamed on the Tutsi minority- immediately resulted in the use of roadblocks throughout the nation and sparked the genocide. - no evidence who shot down the plane but theories range from moderate Hutus to tutsi-led RPF

Answer 25

The RPF gradually took back significant parts of the country ( as killings slowed), then pushed the sitting government out of the country- genocide finally came to an end.

Answer 26

- outpaced the rate of killings in the Holocaust - Lack of centrality controlling it- killings were more reliant on individuals acting out orders from a central command, meaning victims knew their attackers personally.

Answer 27

Rwanda has made significant progress in rebuilding itself after the genocide, but issues of sovereignty and legitimacy remain key challenges. The government continues to remain strong control, balancing national stability with international scrutiny.

Answer 28

Russia believes Crimea is theirs, despite the region gaining independence under Ukraine in 1991.

Answer 29

In 2014, Ukraine's pro-Russian president was driven from power by a new Western- facing government that favoured Ukrainian membership of both the EU and NATO. Russian-backed forces seized control of Crimea, and its Russian-speaking majority voted to join Russia in a snap referendum that Ukraine and the west considered illegal. - 850k Ukrainians fled Crimea as a result

Answer 30

Crimea was annexed by the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine The Great in 1783 and remained part of Russia until 1954, when it was transferred to Ukraine under the then Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Crimean war in 19th century Crimea was occupied by Nazi Germany following Hitler's invasion of Russia in June 1941.

Answer 31

Ukraine's Independence (1991): After the USSR collapsed, Crimea became part of independent Ukraine but had autonomy.

Answer 32

Crimea became part of the Russian Empire in 1783.

Answer 33

The Germans occupied it for part of the Second World War. In 1944, after being recaptured by the Russians, Stalin exiled the entire population of Crimean Tatars to Uzbekistan on charges of collaborating with the Germans.

Answer 34

- Crimea remained part of Russia until 1954, when it was transferred to Ukraine. At that time both Ukraine and Russia were Soviet republics.

Answer 35

* The break up of the USSR in 1991 created an opportunity for the exiled Crimean Tatars, who began returning. (exiled by Stalin)

Answer 36

- Sevastopol has long been the base of the Russian Black Sea fleet. After 1991 Russia found itself with part of its navy based in the newly independent Ukraine. - In 2010, Ukraine agreed to extend Russia's lease on Sevastopol until 2042 (in exchange for cheaper Russian gas).

Answer 37

As of March 31, 2025, the UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine (HRMMU) has verified 12,654 civilian deaths and 29,392 injuries. The actual figures are likely higher, as access to some areas is limited.

Answer 38

Over 10 million people, encompassing both those who have fled the country and those displaced within its borders.

Answer 39

NATO Expansion: Finland and Sweden have joined NATO, strengthening the alliance against Russia.

Answer 40

Global Energy Crisis: Russian oil and gas sanctions led to price spikes, especially in Europe.

Answer 41

Sanctions on Russia: Western sanctions have hurt the Russian economy, though Russia has adapted by strengthening trade ties with China, India, and Middle Eastern nations.

Answer 42

Concerns over nuclear safety: On 14 February, a drone attack caused a fire at the containment structure of the reactor damaged in the 1986 Chornobyl disaster. While radiation levels remained stable, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Director General Rafael Mariano Grossi said that the incident was "deeply concerning" and underscored the ongoing risks to nuclear security posed by the conflict.

Answer 43

Cold War 2.0?: The war has pushed the world into a new geopolitical divide between pro-Western nations and those aligning with Russia/China., long-term geopolitical impact.

Answer 44

According to UN Women, the conflict has also reversed decades of progress for women and girls. In a 19 February statement, UN Women Representative in Ukraine Sabine Freizer Gunes said that the war "has pushed an entire generation of Ukrainian women backwards", citing heightened exposure to gender-based violence, rising unemployment, and a severe mental health crisis.

Answer 45

Near-daily airstrikes on populated areas in Ukrainian cities have caused widespread electricity and heating outages, exacerbating hardships amid freezing winter conditions.

Answer 46

Strained US-Russia Relations: Diplomatic ties between Russia and the West are at their worst since the Cold War. - could lead to physical/Cold War in future

Answer 47

On May 15, 2025, Ukraine and Russia are set to engage in direct peace talks in Istanbul, Turkey—the first such meeting since the war began in 2022. The discussions aim to explore a 30-day ceasefire and potential prisoner exchanges

Answer 48

Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy has expressed openness to negotiations in any format but has emphasized the importance of direct talks with Russian President Vladimir Putin. However, Putin has declined to attend, delegating the talks to senior officials.

Answer 49

Casualty figures remain high. Estimates suggest that Russia has suffered over 790,000 military casualties, while Ukraine's military casualties are around 400,000. Civilian deaths in Ukraine are reported to be approximately 12,910.

Answer 50

European Security Dynamics: European nations view Ukraine's struggle as a defence for the entire continent, urging continued support to prevent Russia from gaining strength.

Answer 51

European allies are attempting to fill the gap. Germany's CDU has proposed a 500 billion euro fund to boost defence spending, and the European commission plans to mobilise nearly 800 billion euros for military support.

Answer 52

What it would involve: Full or partial expulsion of Russian forces from Ukrainian territory. Status: Ukraine continues to receive Western military and financial support but faces manpower and resource challenges. Challenge: Escalation risks with Russia, including nuclear threats or prolonged warfare.

Answer 53

What it would involve: Active fighting reduces, but no formal peace; similar to the situation in eastern Ukraine after 2014. Status: This is a possible outcome if neither side achieves decisive military gains. Challenge: Leaves millions displaced and at risk, and undermines long-term stability in Europe.

Answer 54

What it would involve: Consolidation of control over occupied territories and forcing Ukraine into unfavorable terms. Status: Russia is making some advances but is facing severe human, economic, and geopolitical costs. Challenge: Would not end conflict entirely — likely to lead to insurgency and ongoing resistance.

Answer 55

What it would involve: Ceasefire, withdrawal of troops, potential territorial compromises, guarantees of Ukraine’s sovereignty and security. Status: Russia has rejected recent ceasefire proposals unless Ukraine recognizes the occupied territories as Russian. Ukraine has refused to concede territory. Challenge: Deep mistrust, incompatible demands, and the political cost of compromise on both sides.

Answer 56

1) Ukrainian victory ( with western backing) 2) Frozen conflict/stalemate 3) Russian strategic success 4) Negotiated peace agreement

Answer 57

- China's claim over self-governed Taiwan. Since 1950, Taiwan has been independent. - However- China still claims sovereignty over it and regards Taiwan as a rebel province. - China insists no other countries should have any relations with Taiwan, but that has not stopped Taiwan from becoming one of Asia's economic successes through the production of computer technology.

Answer 58

- Austronesian tribal people (Taiwan's first known settlers) believed to have come from modern day southern China. - Chinese records appear to first mention the island in AD239, when an emperor dispatched an expeditionary force to it - a fact Beijing uses to back its territorial claim.

Answer 59

- Taiwan was briefly held as a Dutch colony, then controlled by China's Qing dynasty (family equivalent to royalty). - Rightfully owned by Japan after the First Sino-Japanese War.

Answer 60

- After WWll Japan surrendered. Taiwan was officially considered occupied by the Republic of China (ROC), which began ruling with the consent of its allies, the US and UK.

Answer 61

Civil war broke out in China and then-leader Chiang Kai-shek's troops were defeated by Mao Zedong's Communist army. - Chiang, the remnants of his Kuomintang (KMT) government and their supporters - about 1.5m people - fled to Taiwan in 1949. This was as they were anti-communism, and they would have been in danger in China as of their opposing viewpoints. - Chiang established a dictatorship that ruled Taiwan until the 1980s. Following his death, Taiwan began a transition to democracy and held its first elections in 1996.

Answer 62

Tension of the Taiwan strait- major trading route for ships carrying goods from and to major economic countries in Asia (e.g China, south Korea and Japan) and other countries around the world. The shutdown of route in the Taiwan strait has not only affected trade, travel and the economy- but it will also affect defence and security (due to military ships not being allowed there either).

Answer 63

Taiwan is the main supplier of the semiconductor (chip) of the world, needed by electronics and automotive industries-potential disruptions.

Answer 64

China and USA are Indonesia's trade partners, distraction from each side and both could have a negative effect on Indonesian trade.

Answer 65

If Russia actively supports China in a Taiwan conflict, the war could escalate beyond East Asia, involving the U.S., Japan, and NATO.

Answer 66

Taiwan produces over 60% of the world's semiconductors. Any conflict involving Taiwan would disrupt global tech industries, worsening supply chain issues.

Answer 67

Russia, a major oil and gas exporter, might redirect more resources to China, affecting global energy prices.

Answer 68

Taiwan's allies (U.S., Japan, Australia, EU) could increase defense commitments to counter Russian and Chinese influence.

Answer 69

If Russia gets involved, Taiwan may face cyberattacks or arms blockades, complicating its defense against China.

Answer 70

NATO, already supporting Ukraine against Russia, could expand its role in the Indo-Pacific, further straining relations with China and Russia.

Answer 71

- China's defence ministry spokesperson has warned Taiwan "we will come and get you, sooner or later", after Taipei announced an expansion of military exercises. - China's military is pushing on with modernisation efforts, designed to reach capability of a full-scale invasion of Taiwan. - Joe Biden previously stated that the US (one of Taiwan's main allies and support) would back Taiwan if China invaded them- however recent reports from Trump (2nd presidency) show little certainty of this.

Answer 72

Loyalty and devotion to a specific nation, especially as expressed in a glorifying of one nation above all others and a stressing of the promotion of its culture and interests.

Answer 73

- Nationalism unites people around common cultural elements such as language, history, religion, and traditions. * A strong national identity encourages people to see themselves as part of a single political community rather than as members of separate regions or ethnic groups.

Answer 74

- Nationalist movements help establish clear borders by defining who belongs to the nation and what territory it should control. * This process sometimes leads to conflict when multiple groups claim the same land based on historical or ethnic ties.

Answer 75

* Nationalist movements argue that a nation (a group of people with shared characteristics) should have the right to govern itself. * This idea, known as self-determination, often leads to demands for independence from empires, monarchies, or colonial rulers.

Answer 76

* Nationalism played a key role in breaking up multi-ethnic empires such as the Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Russian Empire. * It also fueled decolonization in the 20th century, as nationalist leaders in Africa, Asia, and Latin America pushed for independence from European powers.

Answer 77

- people identified primarily with villages, towns or cities, rather than a broader national identity. - dialects and customs varied widely, and interactions were mostly local - Many people never traveled far from where they were born.

Answer 78

*Religion played a more significant role than nationality in shaping identity. - The Catholic Church in Europe and the Caliphates in the Muslim world acted as overarching institutions that unified people across different regions. * Religious wars (e.g., the Crusades, the Protestant Reformation conflicts) were often more significant than national conflicts.

Answer 79

* Large empires such as the Holy Roman Empire, Ottoman Empire, Mughal Empire, and Chinese Dynasties ruled over diverse ethnic and linguistic groups without a unifying national identity. People were subjects of emperors or sultans rather than citizens of a nation. : Loyalty was often to a dynasty or ruler rather than to a country.

Answer 80

In many parts of the world, especially in Africa, the Americas, and Central Asia, people lived in tribal or clan-based societies.

Answer 81

- People began to see themselves as part of a single national community, rather than just subjects of a king or members of a local village. - governments centralised power, standardises languages, and built modern bureaucracies to create stronger nation-states. - Nationalism helped dissolved feudalism, break up empires and drive independent movements.

Answer 82

The British Raj refers to the period of direct British rule over the Indian subcontinent, which lasted from 1858 to 1947, following the end of the East India Company's control after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Answer 83

India came to resent the East India Company due to: Economic exploitation: Heavy taxes, destruction of local industries, and forced cash crop farming. Political control: The Company took over kingdoms and removed local rulers. Cultural interference: Disrespect toward Indian religions and customs increased tensions. Social disruption: Famines, poverty, and forced labor grew under Company rule. These factors led to widespread anger and eventually the Revolt of 1857, marking the beginning of the end for the Company’s rule.

Answer 84

Economic Control: Britain extracted wealth from India through heavy taxation, resource exploitation, and control of trade and industries.

Answer 85

British policies disrupted traditional economies and societies; education and legal systems were westernised.

Answer 86

: Indian nationalism grew steadily, leading to movements like the Indian National Congress, Non-Cooperation Movement, and Quit India Movement.

Answer 87

- It was put into place to save the Indian culture from the cultural erosion that the East Indian company had impended of them over the previous 200 years. Thomas Macaulay- set up an English-style education system - Focused on investing in infrastructure- built canals, irrigation systems etc- this increased production and created a growing national gdp. However, also lead to severe famine and discontent. - British built the rail system in India, continued fro the company and hired locals. - Maintenance was halted during the world wars as Britain had their focus elsewhere. This highlights how although Britain wanted to help the cultures and traditions in the subcontinents, actual progress needed independence and Britain's main aim was benefitting themselves.

Answer 88

British raj ended with a revolution (just as the company did). - people realised Britain didnt want to give them freedom. - Ghandi started 'quit India'- a non-violent movement, intending for them to gain independence. - British tried to stop this by arresting people, however this only stirred them up more. - Protests and attacks on British buildings across the sub-continent- not everyone maintained the nonviolent approach. Some dropped their university classes and refused to pay taxes; others blew up bridges and attacked railway stations. Some even attacked European citizens- so hence the violence prompted the British government to retaliate with violence. - The reaction was so brutal, it drove the quit India movement underground, however the desire for freedom was too deeply lodged in people's minds to be stopped entirely. 1943- protests erupted again, whilst Ghandi began his hunger strike in jail. These protests spread worldwide. - People criticized the British Raj and demanded ghandis release.

Answer 89

He was released in May 1944, devoted himself to gaining Indian freedom - By 1945, everyone could see that the whole of India wanted freedom, not just one movement, or a political party. - When Clement Atlee became the next British prime minister, immediately began working to transfer political power entirely to India. - Country was split into India and Pakistan, to ease religious conflicts. 1947- INDIA FINALLY HAD FREEDOM!

Answer 90

Even after becoming independent, the people chose to keep many British institutions, like the unis, civil services and democracy.

Answer 91

The British Raj ceased but left behind consequences that the Indian people are still working through today.

Answer 92

Contributed to the rise of new Indian nationalism.

Answer 93

"Winds of Change" was a famous speech delivered by British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan in 1960 in Cape Town, South Africa. It marked a major shift in British colonial policy. This was a period of rapid independence for many African nations.

Answer 94

The high cost of the two world wars, resistance to foreign rule and concern about the injustice of colonial rule among young European people helped the independence movements.

Answer 95

Independence movements often learned from and supported each other, and they gained momentum as more and more colonies became independent. In 1960 alone, 17 African countries became independent. By this time, many colonising countries had accepted that colonised countries should be independent. However, colonisers left their colonies without any formal government structure in place. This often led to instability and civil war.

Answer 96

the 1960s the 'winds of change' caused conflicts that were costly for the environment, economy and humans.

Answer 97

Sudan was divided into northern and southern territories, based on ethnic characteristics. Britain and Egypt modernized the mainly Arab north, leaving the mainly black African south to tribal communities. Britain's 'divide and rule' policy pitted the Sudanese people against eachother, rather than against the colonial ruler.

Answer 98

The north prospered more than the south, where 'indirect rule' created hundreds of tribal chiefdoms (Chiefdoms are the first type of society where significant differences of wealth, prestige, and authority exist between groups of people). The 'different country' there left people feeling marginalised and left out of Sudan's development.

Answer 99

Chiefdoms are the first type of society where significant differences of wealth, prestige, and authority exist between groups of people.

Answer 100

Key colonial legacies: Ethnic and Regional Divisions - The North-South divide led to civil wars. Economic Dependence - Agriculture was developed for British profit, not Sudanese needs. Weak Political Institutions - The British left no strong democratic system, leading to military coups.

Answer 101

The stark internal divide between the country's wealthier northern region, which was majority Arab and Muslim, and its less-developed southern region, where most people were Christian or animist. This divide was at the centre of two civil wars, the second of which would_ see the country split into two states in 2011.

Answer 102

The new government imposed Arab identity and Islamic laws on the South. This cultural and religious imposition sparked resentment and fear among Southerners, who saw it as a threat to their identity and freedoms.

Answer 103

Before independence, British colonial rulers administered the North and South separately. Southerners were promised autonomy and federal arrangements post-independence. After independence, the northern elite dominated the new Sudanese government and revoked those promises, centralising power in Khartoum.

Answer 104

North Sudan: Predominantly Arab and Muslim, with political and economic power centred in Khartoum. South Sudan: Mostly Black African, with Christian and traditional beliefs, and economically and politically marginalised.

Answer 105

Sudan’s history is marked by cycles of civil war, ethnic conflict, authoritarian rule, and military coups. From the North-South divide and Darfur genocide to today’s deadly rivalry between military factions, Sudan’s conflicts have stemmed from power struggles, exclusion, and broken political promises — with civilians paying the highest price.

Answer 106

Sudan armed forces (SAF) vs Rapid support forces (RSF) cause- power struggle between Sudan's army and the parliamentary RSF Impact: - thousands killed, millions displaced - The country is on the brink of a third civil war and humanitarian disaster. - There are also other ongoing conflicts.

Answer 107

South Sudan held about 75% of Sudan's oil reserves. The loss of the oil revenue caused severe economic decline, leading to inflation and currency devaluation. Oil production accounts for 80% of South Sudan's economy and provides the state with 98% of its revenues, so the decision to stop production in January sparked consternation among the country's backers, including the UK, which has barely concealed its irritation at Juba's decision.

Answer 108

Sudan was once a major agricultural exporter (cotton, gum Arabic), but post-independence policies weakened the sector. State controlled projects like the Gezira scheme declined due to poor management.

Answer 109

U.s international sanctions (1990s-2007) due to human rights violations and links to terrorism limited trade and investment. Foreign debt also increased, restricting economic growth.

Answer 110

Before independence, Sudan relied on British and Egyptian administration for economic planning and infrastructure. After independence, it lacked the technical expertise and investment to sustain development.

Answer 111

Post-independence conflicts, including the first (1955-1972) and second (1983-2005) Sudanese civil wars, drained resources. A large proportion of the budget was spent on military operations rather than economic development.

Answer 112

$US 158 billion

Answer 113

In border states, markets are almost bare and prices for staple foods, such as a tin of millet, which feeds a family of five for two days, have quadrupled. The price of pasta, a common food in South Sudan, is rising fast in line with inflation.

Answer 114

Annual inflation accelerated to 79.5% in May, from 29.5% the previous month. (2012)

Answer 115

Oxfam said fighting at the border has severed trade, cutting off the vital flow of people, fuel and goods, and affecting the ability of people to earn a living.

Answer 116

Expanding Sahara Desert: Poor land management and deforestation have accelerated desertification, especially in northern and central Sudan.

Answer 117

Sudan is the largest (2.5 million km2) and most seriously affected country by desertification in Africa. The sem-arid/arid lands cover about 72% of the total area of the country.

Answer 118

Because such a large area of Sudan is considered drylands, much of the country is at risk. In fact, researchers in Khartoum, Sudan's capital city, have argued that desertification is the largest environmental threat that Sudan faces, as it has large impacts on human lives and sustainable development

Answer 119

Ineffective land management ; The use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides also works to degrade soil, as they kill off helpful microorganisms in soil and remove crucial nutrients for plant growth. - Removing protective layers of vegetation on top through tilling erodes land and degrades the soil, leaving infertile soil levels below to dry out in the sun. - As more land is degraded, more land must be turned into farmland and used more intensively. This increased land-use intensity in turn worsens desertification, as intensive agriculture works to degrade land.

Answer 120

Average annual temperature in Sudan increased from 29.75 degrees Celsius- 30.75 in 2015, peaking at nearly 31.5 in 2010. In turn, this dries out soils, plants cannot receive nutrients and water they need in order to survive.

Answer 121

Extreme weather events like drought are a major driver of desertification and are becoming more intense and more frequent as a result of climate change. As much of Sudan's deserts are already susceptible to drought, climate change may cause more extreme drought in this area.

Answer 122

Initially a rapid reversal of some of South Sudan's most impressive development gains including a rise in school enrolments and a fall in child death rates.

Answer 123

Even before the oil shutdown, UNICEF, the UN agency for children, was reporting a rise in malnutrition. Post-harvest surveys (where a lower incidence of malnutrition should be seen) in October-November 2011 indicated that acute malnutrition had increased in six states since the previous year, particularly in Jonglei and Northern Bahr el Ghazal.

Answer 124

There are also reports of teachers moving to jobs in the police and military, which are seen as more secure, further depleting a small pool of teachers in a country where there is only one trained teacher for every 124 children in school. (2012)

Answer 125

Consequently, the caseload projections for severe acute malnutrition have risen from 83,000 to 110,000, and for moderate acute malnutrition from 150,000 to 206,000 for this year.

Answer 126

Migration between former colonies and the imperial core (the country that colonised them) have shaped the cultural heterogeneity and ethnic diversity of nation states.

Answer 127

1) During the 19th and early 20th century, millions of people left European countries to settle in colonies like Australia and South Africa. 2) In the latter part of the 20th century, this pattern was reversed - large numbers of people moved to Europe from formerly colonised countries such as South Africa, India, Pakistan and the Caribbean.

Answer 128

3)After the Second World War, the UK invited people from its colonies and former colonies to come and help rebuild the UK (under the British Nationality Act of 1948).

Answer 129

- Over the next 20 years, around 900 000 people moved to the UK from India, Pakistan, countries in Africa and the Caribbean. This changed the UK's ethnic composition, making it more diverse.- - For example, between 1956 and 1970 London Transport actively recruited around 6000 employees from the Caribbean. - Additionally, by 1960 nearly 40% of NHS junior doctors were from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

Answer 130

6) Migration also increased the UK's cultural heterogeneity (diversity), as migrant communities introduced new food, music, languages and art to the UK. For example, curry became a popular dish in the UK as a result of the migration of people from countries such as India and Pakistan

Answer 131

Over 33% - India, Pakistan, Kenya and Nigeria

Answer 132

India- 896 000 Pakistan- 456 000 Kenya- 144 000 Nigeria- 312 000 Singapore- 63 000

Answer 133

A state that offers low income taxes and corporation tax rates in hope of attracting investment from wealthy individuals and TNCS.

Answer 134

A business without active business operations or significant assets. - These types of corporations are not NECESSARILY illegal, but are sometimes used illegitimately, to disguise business ownership from law enforcement or the public. e.g- Companies using shell companies in Ireland, which has a lower corporate tax rate than the UK.

Answer 135

Was 19%- Increased to 25% on 1st April 2023

Answer 136

Inheritance tax below £325k not taxed, amount above it tax of 40%.

Answer 137

1) Industrialised companies have adopted the Washington Consensus- economic efficiency= removal of regulations. 2) De regulation in the 1970s/80s- Margret Thatcher- has made it fairly easy for people to keep their money in a tax haven, even if the money is made in another country, because there are fewer laws in place. 3) Privatisation whereby government assets are now owned by individuals or TNCs 4) Government spending has been reduced and consequently taxation is lower 5) Several governments have expanded their lack of regulation, low inco0me tax + corporation tax= tax haven

Answer 138

Some of the world's tax havens are small island states, e.g. the Bahamas, or the overseas territories of bigger countries, e.g. the Cayman Islands (which are an overseas territory of the UK).

Answer 139

1) Those wishing to avoid their obligation to pay tax 2) Used to hide criminal activities from view 3) By those who want their activities to be anonymous, even if legal 4) Those seeking somewhere cheaper to do business, to avoid the costly obligation to comply with regulations.

Answer 140

They believe tax havens contribute to global inequality, weaken public services, and facilitate corruption- all of which go against their missions to promote equity, development, and justice.

Answer 141

Corporations and wealthy individuals use tax havens to avoid paying taxes in the countries where they actually do business. This results in billions in lost revenue for governments — especially in developing countries, where that money is badly needed for services like healthcare, education, and infrastructure.

Answer 142

Tax havens disproportionately benefit the richest individuals and multinational corporations, not ordinary citizens or small businesses. This widens the gap between rich and poor, both within countries and globally — a major concern for NGOs focused on social justice.

Answer 143

When the public sees elites hiding wealth and avoiding taxes, it can erode trust in government and institutions. NGOs argue this weakens the social contract, where citizens pay taxes and governments provide services in return.

Answer 144

Tax havens are often used to launder money, hide stolen assets, or fund illegal activities. NGOs working on anti-corruption, human rights, and transparency see tax havens as tools that enable dictators, traffickers, and criminals to operate with impunity.

Answer 145

Many NGOs work in low-income countries where tax avoidance by multinational companies deprives local governments of essential funds. This makes it harder to meet development goals, like reducing poverty or improving education and health outcomes.

Answer 146

Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and governments may accept or tolerate tax havens for several complex and sometimes contradictory reasons — often balancing economic interests, political power, and legal frameworks.

Answer 147

Some governments use tax havens strategically to attract foreign investment, banking, or corporate headquarters. They see low taxes and financial secrecy as a way to boost their economies, especially in small states or island nations with few natural resources.

Answer 148

Wealthy individuals, multinational corporations, and financial institutions often have significant influence on policymaking. Governments may be reluctant to close tax loopholes due to lobbying, campaign funding, or fear of capital flight.

Answer 149

Tax avoidance through havens is often legal, though unethical. Governments sometimes lack the tools, international cooperation, or political will to close these loopholes effectively. Some countries (e.g., Ireland, Luxembourg, Switzerland) act as “onshore havens” with favorable tax policies that are technically legal.

Answer 150

IGOs like the OECD, IMF, or UN cannot force sovereign countries to eliminate tax havens — they rely on cooperation and consensus. Some tax haven jurisdictions are members or allies of more powerful nations, making enforcement politically sensitive.

Answer 151

Globalisation has contributed to economic growth. It's made it easier for TNCs, and the people who own them, to make large amounts of money. This has increased the wealth divide between the world's richest and poorest. In 2020, the richest 1% of the global population owned nearly 46% of the world's wealth.

Answer 152

Countries where income inequality is rising experiences slower economic growth, which affects the global economy. The main reason for this is that unequal access to education limits the skills that people from poorer backgrounds can acquire, which in turn limits their potential contribution both to the economy and to progress, e.g. in technology. Inequalities in health care can also reduce productivity, which limits economic growth.

Answer 153

There's rising inequality between countries — for example, the world's wealthiest people are concentrated in wealthy countries like the USA and Japan. There's also growing inequality within many countries — between different social groups, men and women, and wealthy elites and the rest of the population. These groups also experience other kinds of inequality, for example access to education and human rights

Answer 154

These growing inequalities could threaten the stability and sustainability of the global economic system. Inequality can increase tensions between different social groups and lead to conflict or protests against the government. This can weaken social and political stability. International organisations are starting to recognise these problems. In 2020, the UN called for countries to work towards greater equality, especially for women and minority groups.

Answer 155

Governments (such as Bolivia or Ecuador) must: ● Limit imports of essential resources, such as food, water and raw materials. ● Ensure energy security (often using renewable sources) ● Reduce TNCs, instead promoting local businesses to secure employment opportunities and tax generated.

Answer 156

More socialist policies They have helped it to become a more equal society

Answer 157

In the 1980s and 1990s, Ecuador was unstable and experienced conflict and economic recessions. It had large international debts.

Answer 158

In 2006, Rafael Correa was elected as Ecuador's president. He announced that his new government would put Ecuadorian people first, moving away from the approach of earlier governments. Correa believed they had focused too much on making profits from Ecuador's oil reserves and paying the country's debts.

Answer 159

In 2008, the new national constitution was approved, which included the idea of buen vivir. This idea comes from indigenous South American philosophy. It translates as 'good living', but it means more than that — e.g. that everyone should have a good life that doesn't damage the planet, and that the wellbeing of the community is more important than the success of one individual. This challenges neoliberal ideas about the importance of individual choice and economic growth. Correa increased public spending on services and temporarily raised taxes in order to fund Ecuador's recovery from an earthquake. His government also sued a US-based oil company for causing environmental damage in the Amazon.

Answer 160

Ecuador's inequality decreased and poverty rates nearly halved between 2006 and 2016. This can also be seen by the decrease in the country's Gini coefficient (see p.105), which has shown an overall decline since 2003. However, Correa and his policies weren't popular with everyone. He was criticised by indigenous groups and activists for his authoritarian approach and for drilling for oil in a remote part of the Amazon rainforest.

Answer 161

Following the COVID-19 pandemic, Ecuador entered a recession which had a negative impact on poverty levels within the country. In 2021, a government plan was drawn up to try and improve the socio-economic situation by focusing on creating opportunities for its citizens.

Answer 162

Ecuador significantly increased public spending on health, education, and social protection during the 2000s and 2010s. From 2007 to 2015, poverty dropped from about 37% to 22%, and extreme poverty fell from 16.5% to around 7.9%. Gini coefficient (a measure of inequality) declined from 0.55 in 2003 to about 0.47 by 2014, showing progress in income distribution.

Answer 163

Renewable Energy Investment: Significant investments were made in hydroelectric power, helping Ecuador shift toward renewable energy sources. By the mid-2010s, about 90% of Ecuador’s electricity came from hydropower, reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

Answer 164

Diversifying the Economy (Beyond Oil) Goal: Reduce over-reliance on oil exports, which made the economy vulnerable to global price shocks. Action: Invested in infrastructure, agriculture, education, and innovation to promote other sectors like tourism, manufacturing, and agro-industry. Impact: Some diversification occurred, but oil remained a key pillar. Still, public investment in productive sectors laid the foundation for long-term resilience.

Answer 165

Massive Investment in Human Capital Action: Increased spending on education, healthcare, and technical training. Spending on education rose to over 6% of GDP during Correa’s term. Impact: Created a more skilled workforce, improved health outcomes, and expanded access to university education—all essential for sustainable, long-term development.

EQ2 MIS Flashcards

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