Exam 1 Flashcards
(241 cards)
1
Q
Among the cellular responses to injury we learned in lecture (atrophy, hyperplasia, etc), which one is never adaptive and is considered “pre-neoplastic”?
A
DYSPLASIA
dysplasia is a pre-cancerous pattern of growth - it never benefits the tissue in any way
2
Q
What are the visual signs of cellular (coagulative) necrosis?
A
- Gray, firm mass of structures within the cell
- Coagulation of dead cells
- Acidosis - enzymes starting to break things down so structures might look swollen
3
Q
What are some examples of when cellular (coagulative) necrosis might happen?
A
hypoxic injury, myocardial infarction (cardiac)
4
Q
Latent period of disease process
A
time between the initial exposure/injury and the first manifestation of signs and symptoms
(also referred to as incubation period, or “sub-clinical stage”)
5
Q
Prodromal period of disease process
A
particularly common for infectious diseases — this is the first onset of signs and symptoms (often non-specific)
6
Q
Acute phase of disease process
A
the severity of signs and symptoms peak, and SPECIFIC signs and symptoms emerge
(example with jaundice being the specific symptom of hepatitis)
7
Q
chronic stage of disease process
A
After acute phase, if there is no recovery, disease moves into chronic
what this looks like completely depends on the disease
might be remissions/outbreaks, or slow progression downwards as in with chronic kidney failure or chronic liver disease leading to cirrhosis
8
Q
Unlike coagulative necrosis, apoptosis involves:
A.programmed cell death
B.cell shrinkage
C.the removal of cell debris by immune cells
D.all of the above
A
D. all of the above
9
Q
Liquifactive necrosis occurs in:
A.Tissue with little to no connective tissue
B.Tissue with high amounts of surrounding fat deposits
C.Tissue with moderate amounts of connective tissue
D.As a result of apoptosis
A
A.Tissue with little to no connective tissue
10
Q
Where does Liquifactive necrosis most commonly occur?
A
BRAIN and nervous system is the most common place b/c there’s almost no connective tissue there
11
Q
Which of the following correctly describes metaplasia?
A.When the cells in a tissue bed increase in size
B.When the cells in a tissue bed increase in number
C.When the cell type of a tissue bed is replaced with less mature/differentiated cell type
D.When the cell type, cell density, and organization of a tissue bed becomes high irregular
A
C.When the cell type of a tissue bed is replaced with less mature/differentiated cell type
12
Q
What is a free radical?
A.a molecule with an unpaired electron
B.any byproduct of metabolism
C.a molecule that is only produced under pathological conditions
D.None of the above
A
A. a molecule with an unpaired electron
13
Q
Hydropic swelling is a sign of:
A.cell division
B.hypertrophy
C.cell injury or cell death
D.hyperplasia
A
C.cell injury or cell death
14
Q
Hydropic swelling represents
A
the failure of the ability to keep out sodium - sodium leaks in, water follows, and the cell swells
15
Q
Which one of the following changes in cell/tissue morphology and function is not considered “adaptive”?
A.Atrophy
B.Hypertrophy
C.Hyperplasia
D.Displasia
A
D.Displasia
16
Q
Reactive Oxygen Species can damage cells by causing:
A.Lipid peroxidation
B.Disruption/damage to polypeptide chains
C.DNA damage
D.all of the above
A
D.all of the above
17
Q
The most common cause of pathological atrophy is:
A.increased functional demand
B.starvation
C.emybrological development
D.decreased functional demand
A
D.decreased functional demand
18
Q
Reactive oxygen species can be produced as a result of:
A.Normal aerobic metabolism
B.As a part of inflammation
C.Exposure to ionizing radiation
D.All of the above
A
D.All of the above
19
Q
The most common cause of both hypertrophy and hyperplasia is increased functional demand. If that’s true then why is it that increased functional demand can cause hypertrophy of cardiac muscle but never hyperplasia?
A.Cardiac muscle cells do not undergo the kind of increased functional demand that is needed to trigger hyperplasia
B.Cardiac muscle cells are incapable of cell division
C.The gap junctions in-between cardiac muscle cells interfere with hyperplasia
D.None of the above
A
B.Cardiac muscle cells are incapable of cell division
20
Q
Symptom
A
a subjectively experienced manifestation
can only be reported by patient, it is not objectively observable
severity is also subjective (pain)
21
Q
Signs
A
objectively observable - ex. rash, fever - measurable
22
Q
Syndrome
A
a collection of signs and symptoms that are pretty stereotypical and tend to be commonly caused by a particular disease state
23
Q
Hypertrophy
A
where the cell gets bigger without multiplying
24
Q
Hyperplasia
A
cell number increases through cell division
25
An example of hypertrophy without hyperplasia
Muscles increasing from exercise
26
Extracellular fluid has 2 sub-compartments:
```
Intravascular (plasma)
Interstitial fluid (between the vasculature and the cells)
```
27
Composition of plasma is the same as interstitial space with the exception of
plasma proteins
28
Homeostasis
the condition of normal function of the body, represents the optimal set point or range of a variety of parameters (mostly of extracellular fluid)
29
2 most tightly regulated parameters (because of protein sensitivity):
1. Temperature
| 2. pH
30
Every enzyme in our body is a
protein
31
To lose heat, we transfer
blood flow to the skin
32
Disease is
the loss of homeostasis
33
Etiology is
the cause of a disease
34
Pathogenesis is
the physiological development of the disease — pathogenesis starts with the original injury and develops until you have clinical manifestations
35
clinical manifestations are
observable, often measurable, signs and symptoms of a disease
36
Iatrogenic problems are caused
inadvertently by medical treatment
37
Idiopathic
unknown cause (largest category of disorders)
Note that some very common disorders are idiopathic - such as primary hypertension
38
Serology
analysis of the blood for current antibodies
39
Differential diagnosis
list of conditions that match any part of your information — once you have that list (inductive), then you rule things out (deductive)
40
What is a buffer?
Buffers are Weak acids and bases that can absorb excess H+ or OH- thereby preventing fluctuations in pH.
41
What are the major buffering systems in the body? What is the most important one?
*Bicarbonate (HCO3-/H2CO3) - most important
- Hemoglobin (Hb-/HHb)
- Proteins (Pr-/HPr) (both intracellular and extracellular)
- Phosphate (HPO4=/H2PO4-)
42
What are the 3 main causes of edema?
1. Decreased Plasma Oncotic Pressure
2. Increased Interstitial Oncotic Pressure
3. Increased Capillary Blood Pressure
43
How does decreased plasma oncotic pressure cause edema?
diminished production of Albumin
| occurs with Malnutrition, liver disease, wounds
44
How does increased interstitial oncotic pressure cause edema?
Increased capillary permeability or vascular injury
can often happen as a normal process of inflammation
45
How does increased capillary blood pressure cause edema?
- Hypertension
- Venous obstruction (blockage or volume overload)
- * Lymphatic obstruction
46
Body water is gained from two primary sources:
1. water consumed alone or in food
| 2. water liberated from metabolic processes
47
Body water is primarily lost through three routes:
urine***, feces, sweat
48
the higher the ADH is, the ___ water you lose
less
49
What controls the distribution of fluids between ICF and ECF?
Oncotic pressure, Na K pump and ATP Cell Volume
50
What controls the distribution of fluids between the Intravascular and Interstitial compartments
Water and Osmolyte Balance
51
Fat tissue has far less water content than muscle tissue, so as body fat goes up, the TBW goes ____
down
and you are more vulnerable to dehydration
52
women and elderly have lower TBW because
women b/c they have more fat tissue, and for elderly they have less muscle mass
53
Total Body Water (TBW) =
ICF + ECF
54
TBW is normally ___ of total body weight
60%
55
2 examples of irreversible cell injury
apoptosis
| necrosis
56
How does the composition of the plasma membrane influence its “selective permeability”?
phospholipid bilayer mostly lipid (tails)
lipid soluble/nonpolar/lipophilic/hydrophobic will cross membrane easily
water soluble/polar/hydrophilic head need channel or carrier b/c cannot pass easily
57
What determines the relative ease with which a particular substance can passively cross the plasma membrane?
solubility
58
the sorts of things that passively cross the membrane are
lipid soluble substances, H2O soluble substances, water
59
example of a substance that requires facilitated diffusion
glucose
60
Simple diffusion:
- passive transport
- no carrier, no energy
- high to low
- the more you increase the concentration, the more transport (and faster the transport) - black line in graph
61
Osmosis
- form of simple diffusion
| - H2O will move from a high concentration to low concentration
62
Facilitated Diffusion:
- no energy used, but need a carrier or protein transporter to cross membrane
- high to low
- limiting factor for how fast we can transport is # of transporters b/c we can saturate transporters
- green line in graph - as you increase the concentration the rate increases UNTIL it hits some limiting factor and the rate of diffusion is actually plateauing - this is because there’s a limited number of protein channels that can carry substance across
63
osmotic pressure can ONLY be exerted by a solute that
CANNOT cross the membrane
64
Concentration =
solutes per volume
65
Osmotic pressure pulls water ____
towards itself
66
Primary Active Transport
use ATP to go from low to high (uphill)
most important example is the Na-K ATP pump (another example is vesicular transport)
67
Fick's law determines rate of simple diffusion by what 5 factors?
1. Steepness of gradient
(The steeper the gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion)
2. Permeability
(If you have a more permeable membrane, the faster the rate)
3. Size/weight
(Something that’s smaller/lighter will diffuse faster)
4. Thickness of the diffusion gradient (also known as the diffusion distance)
(The thinner the diffusion barrier, the faster the rate)
5. The surface area available for diffusion
(The greater the surface area available for diffusion, the faster it happens)
68
Tonicity =
the effect that a solution will have on cell volume
69
Isotonic solution =
has the same osmolarity/osmolality (same solute concentration) as the inside of a cell (approximately 290)
there is no net movement of water
70
Hypotonic =
more dilute compared to ICF (fewer particles)
osmolarity will be
71
Hypertonic =
osmolarity is greater than cell (more concentrated) > 290
water will move out of the cell
hypertonic solutions cause cell shrinking
72
Osmolarity =
the number of particles in a solution that can exert an osmotic pressure
73
ICF has osmolarity of about
290
74
Changes in ECF temperature and pH will ____ protein
denature
this interferes with interaction of side chains and changes the protein structure, which changes protein function
75
Clinically, ECF is
plasma
76
secondary active transport uses the energy that is
stored in the ion concentration gradients across the membrane
Example of Na: Because it’s sitting outside the cell and WANTS to go in, it has “potential energy”
transporters harness this energy
77
In what direction are the co-transporters moving in secondary active transport with regard to their concentration gradient?
ALWAYS moving in OPPOSITE directions
one of them is moving downhill, and the other is moving uphill
but note that either both moving into the cell or both moving out of the cell
78
proper functioning of the Na/K ATPase pump
For each ATP the pump breaks down, 2 potassium ions are transported INTO the cell and 3 sodium ions OUT of the cell
generates electrical impulses called “action potentials”
79
What is the function and characteristics of epithelial tissue?
- Forms the barriers in our body, lining the area between internal and external environment (could be GI tract, esophagus, small intestine, urinary tract)
- Epithelial cells are small, polarized, and tightly connected to one another, and have 2 layers of selectively permeable plasma membrane
80
endocrine glandular tissue is
ductless
hormones are directly secreted into the bloodstream
81
exocrine glandular tissue is
substances are released onto the surface of an organ
82
classic examples of exocrine tissue
sweat gland - sebaceous gland (releases sebum/oil onto surface of skin)
exocrine gland in the digestive tract that releases juices onto the surface of the stomach
83
Facilitated diffusion:
A.Involves a carrier molecule.
B.Requires energy expenditure.
C.The substance moves down its concentration gradient.
D.Both (a) and (c) above.
D.Both (a) and (c) above.
84
What would decrease the rate of diffusion of a substance through a membrane?
Increasing the molecular weight of the substance
85
Osmosis is a type of:
A.Carrier-mediated transport
B.Diffusion
C.Exocytosis
D.Pinocytosis
B.Diffusion
86
Osmolite is
an impermeable solute that exerts an osmotic pressure
87
Secondary active transport involves the active movement of a substance _________ using the energy that is freed by allowing another substance to move passively ___________.
A.Down its concentration gradient/// against its concentration gradient
B.Against its concentration gradient/// down its concentration gradient
C.Against its electrical gradient/// against its concentration gradient
D.Down its electrical gradient/// down its concentration gradient
B.Against its concentration gradient/// down its concentration gradient
88
With secondary active transport there are always 2 substances involved:
“helper” and then the substance that’s being actively transported
89
Which of the following is a function of membrane proteins?
A.They serve as channels.
B.They serve as carriers.
C.They serve as receptor sites.
D.All of the above
D.All of the above
90
Which one of the following does not require energy expenditure?
A.Movement of potassium into the cell.
B.Movement of sodium into the cell.
C. Movement of amino acids into the cell
D.Movement of sodium out of the cell
B.Movement of sodium into the cell.
91
Sodium moving into the cell ___ need energy
does NOT
92
Amino acids into cell, potassium into cell, and sodium out of the cell are all
against the gradient
93
Apoptosis:
programmed cell death - does NOT cause an inflammatory response
94
Necrosis:
also irreversible, like apoptosis, but is due to some kind of external injury - causes an inflammatory response
ex: infection, ischemia (lack of oxygen so cells become hypoxic)
95
caseous necrosis
cottage cheese-like consistency
example: TB
96
fat necrosis happens often in the
liver, with fat/adipose tissue, process called saponification (fat combines with calcium and forms soap-like deposits)
97
Metaplasia
replacement of highly functional, highly differentiated cell types with a less differentiated cell type (ex. squamous cells) because they have a better turnover rate
if you have consistent damage in an area, you want cells that can quickly turn over and replace the dying cells in the area
it is reversible and adaptive
but can convert to dysplasia over time (which is irreversible)
98
Dysplasia
some kind of mutation at the genetic level causing complete derangement of the tissue bed - NOT adaptive
99
Cells involved with innate immunity as it addresses bacteria (extracellular)
Phagocytic cells (scavenger cells), Granulocytes (BEN)
100
Cells involved with adaptive immunity as it addresses bacteria (extracellular)
B cells (antibodies)
101
Cells involved with innate immunity as it addresses virus (intracellular)
Phagocytic cells (scavenger cells), Granuloytes (BEN), NK Cells
102
Cells involved with adaptive immunity as it addresses virus (intracellular)
T cells (CD8)
103
Maintaining water balance is done systemically by the ____
ADH/Thirst system
104
The sensation of plasma osmolarity felt by the SFO and the OVLT controls
the release of ADH from the hypothalamus
105
If the NA-K pumps were to stop working, you’d start to see what accumulating inside and outside the cell?
Na accumulating in the cell (water follows, cell and organelles start to swell and are on their way to dying)
potassium accumulating outside of the cell
106
water always moves in the direction of the higher number, so if the ECF was hypertonic, water would move
out of the cell and cause cell shrinkage
107
Most abundant plasma protein is
albumin
108
Patients with cirrhosis look like FVE (pitting edema, etc.) but when you take their blood pressure, it’s
low (due to decrease in plasma oncotic pressure)
109
Increased interstitial oncotic pressure can often happen as
a normal process of inflammation
110
Pushing force called capillary blood pressure is coming from ____ and favors ____
inside the capillary and favors ultrafiltration
111
Pulling force called capillary oncotic pressure is coming from ____ and favors ____
inside the capillary that favors reabsorption
112
We actually have net ultrafiltration most of the time, which tells you that
capillary blood pressure must be greater than capillary onctoic pressure and interstitial hydrostatic pressure
113
Lymphatic vessels
- look very similar to capillaries
- run adjacent to capillary beds
- are constantly draining a certain amount of interstitial fluid
114
Edema, especially pitting edema, is the disruption caused by what 3 things?
Either too much ultrafiltration, not enough reabsorption, or a problem with lymphatic drainage
115
serous membranes:
sheets of connective tissue that covers organs or lines body cavities that produces fluid and fills the space between membranes
116
pleural effusion:
accumulation of intracellular fluid outside of the lungs and it starts to compress the lungs and occupy some of that space — these can be caused by a variety of things, often anything that affects lymphatic drainage (can occur with thoracic cavity trauma or surgery)
117
ascites is what, and when does it occur?
fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity
| occurs when someone has significant decline in albumin or albumin loss
liver issues, malnutrition
118
Examples of Isotonic volume depletion
hemorrhage, severe wound drainage, etc
119
Isotonic volume excesses - examples
excess IV fluids, hypersection of aldosterone, etc
120
Hypernatremia examples
inadequate water intake, inappropriate administration of hypertonic saline
121
Hyperchloremia
accompanies any excess of sodium or deficit of bicarbonate, excess ammonium chloride diuretic, etc
122
examples of Hyponatremia
diuretics, vomiting, diarrhea, burns, dilutional
123
When does Water excess occur?
decreased urine formation, SIADH
124
Dehydration causes hypernatremia which causes
hypertonicity
125
diabetes insipidus is where people lose the ability to produce ___ which keeps them from retaining water
ADH
126
SIADH is when people are producing too much ADH, which leads to
water excess
127
Using a diuretic may lead to
excess loss of sodium
128
Sweat is almost always
hypotonic
causes water depletion before sodium depletion
129
Hypertonic hyponatremia:
when the overall plasma is hypertonic, but the sodium concentration is actually less than normal - this is very rare
130
Potassium balance is maintained systemically by the ____ and intracellularly by the ____
Aldosterone-mediated-renal regulation
Na/K ATPase pumps
131
In Acidosis, K+ moves
out of the cell
132
In Alkalosis, K+ moves
into the cell
133
When there is increased insulin, K+ moves
into the cell
134
When it comes to sodium imbalance, you’re worried about
brain function and operation of CNS
135
With potassium imbalances, the primary concern is
cardiac arrest and arrhythmias
136
Quick fix to bring potassium into the cell (lowering the serum level) is to give
insulin AND glucose
137
hyperventilation causes
alkalosis
138
hypoventilation causes
acidosis
139
if pH is low, PCO2 is high, and HCO3 is high, then this is
respiratory acidosis
140
partially compensated means that the pH is
still altered
141
full compensation means that the pH is
within normal limits
142
Causes of Metabolic Acidosis:
Increased Noncarbonic Acids:
Ketoacidosis, Uremia, ingestion, etc
Bicarbonate Loss:
Diarrhea, Renal Failure, proximal tubule acidosis, etc
143
Causes of Metabolic Alkalosis:
```
Excess loss of non-carbonic acids:
prolonged vomiting,
gastrointestinal suctioning,
hyperaldosteronism,
diuretic therapy, etc
```
Or excess bicarbonate intake
144
Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol. This is an ___ process, and produces how much ATP?
anaerobic
2 ATP
145
Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrion. This is an ___ process, and produces how much ATP?
anaerobic
2 ATP
146
Electron transport and oxidative occurs in the mitochondrion. This is an ___ process, and produces how much ATP?
aerobic
32 ATP
147
mechanism of hypoxic cell injury is
depriving the Electron transport and oxidative process (last stage) of its abilities
148
Ischemia vs Hypoxia
Ischemia: decreased blood flow to an area
Hypoxia: low oxygen
149
Anoxia
no oxygen delivery to the area - is going to cause cell death
150
Reperfusion injury:
occurs because it’s the layering of injuries that have already occurred
151
Free radical:
any kind of element that has an unpaired electron in its outermost shell
152
What intracellular events lead to Hydropic swelling as a result of hypoxic injury?
Hypoxic injury occurs when you have the ischemia or complete obstruction of blood flow to areas
Decreased delivery of oxygen to the mitochondria —> decrease ATP production —> Na-K and Calcium pumps stop working —> Na and water starts to accumulate —> acute cellular swelling
This swelling is the beginning of cell death
Signs: Organelles will swell too, increased glycolysis which leads to increased lactate production and the cell becomes acidic
153
Peroxidation of membrane lipids can have numerous effects, including:
- increased membrane rigidity
- decreased activity of membrane-bound enzymes (ex. sodium pumps)
- altered activity of membrane receptors
- altered permeability
154
reactive oxygen species damage cells in a variety of ways:
- lipid peroxidation:
structural changes in the membrane lipids and phospholipids that can cause membrane rigidity, altered activity of receptors, altered permeability
- protein damage
- DNA damage: prevents cell from producing essential proteins, or make the cell mutate until it dies, or cause cancer
155
what increases free radical production?
```
smoking
UV light/radiation
exposure to certain pollutants
inflammation
even normal metabolism
```
156
physiological atrophy, definition and example
considered “normal” within development
ex. as a child’s brain develops, there are certain circuits that are developed that eventually are rendered superfluous and are pruned away/atrophied away
157
pathological atrophy, definition and example
a response to decreased functional demand
protein restriction, caloric restriction, malnutrition — can all cause atrophying of tissue
158
left ventricular hypertrophy is a result of
chronic increase in afterload of the heart
HTN or stenosis of the aortic valve
159
hypertrophy and hyperplasia almost always
happen together
160
Do patients who are NPO for a long time stop defecating?
NO - because cells are still being produced/dying/turned to waste
161
accumulations are caused by what 3 major things?
1. digestive pathway is overwhelmed (too much substrate)
2. disgestive pathway is impaired in some way (deficiency of enzyme)
3. the material being introduced is foreign and you don’t have a digestive pathway for it
162
Brain with Tay-Sachs disease is an example of
accumulation/deficiency of necessary enzyme
163
fatty liver is
an example of accumulation: infiltration
hepatocytes in the liver with significant accumulation of fat
a reversible stage of alcoholic injury to the liver
164
what is hydropic swelling and how does it happen?
accumulation of water inside of the cell
happens when the rate of ATP production goes down OR whenever membrane integrity is impaired (this can happen with exposure to bacterial toxins, viral infection, chemical exposure)
165
what happens in apoptosis?
cell produces endogenous endonucleasis (proteins that go in and start cleaving portions of the chromatins)
cell first appears like it’s shrinking
nucleus collapses in on itself, then dissolves
apoptotic cell looks like it’s IMPLODING
166
Nervous system is ___, whereas the endocrine system is ____
hardwired
wireless
167
Basic unit of information flow in the nervous system is the
action potential
168
Difference in the time frame of response between nervous and endocrine system
Nervous system = immediate response (ex. putting your hand on the hot stove)
Endocrine system = takes longer, because hormones have to be secreted
169
Neurotransmitter
key chemical messenger of the nervous system
released by a neuromal (sp?) cell and acts on an adjacent cell - travels a very short distance
170
Hormone
key chemical messenger of the endocrine system
released by an endocrine gland into the bloodstream and can act on a distance
171
too much excitability in the Cerebral spinal fluid can trigger
seizures
172
Afferent (sensory) division of the PNS
includes sensory (all the things we’re aware of - touch smell eyesight heat cold) and then visceral stimuli that we’re not consciously aware of (BP etc.)
173
Efferent (command) division of the PNS
composed of the parts that control the somatic part of our body (motoneurons that move skeletal muscle in voluntary movements) AND the autonomic system (involuntary control of
174
Where do action potentials begin and end?
begin at axon hillock (the initial portion of the axon) and travel down the axon, ending at the axon terminals
175
Membrane Potential =
voltage difference across the membrane
176
Resting membrane potential is
NEGATIVE
177
Action potential is generated by
the movement of charge across the membrane
178
Ions that are more concentrated INSIDE the cell include:
K
Mg
Proteins
179
Ions that are more concentrated OUTSIDE the cell include:
Na
Ca
CL
HCO3
180
Equilibrium Potential (K) is
-90
181
Equilibrium Potential (Na) is
+60
182
Resting Membrane Potential is
-70mV
means it’s more permeable to potassium at rest (more passive channels open to allowing potassium to leave)
183
As resting membrane becomes more positive, this is ____. As it becomes more negative, this is ____
depolarization (more positive - upwards deflection)
hyperpolarization
184
What is the threshold potential?
-50
if depolarization reaches -50, the Na+ activation gate opens
185
Once sodium rises to range from +20 to +30, what happens?
opens potassium gates
186
Cells of the immune system come from
pluripotent hematopoetic stem cells in the bone marrow
187
Lymphoid immune cells
T cells, B cells, NK cells (lymphocytes)
188
Myeloid immune cells
RBC, platelets
189
Leukocytes (Dr Ben)
```
M = monocytes, mast cells
D = dendritic cells
```
```
B = basophils
E = eosinophils
N= neutrophils,
BEN = granulocytes (inducible cells)
```
190
What are the Major Histocompatibility Complex molecules?
antigens on the membranes of the cells that let other cells know that they are “Self"
they also present other antigens to T cells
191
In what cells are MCH I found, and what is their function?
FOUND: on all cells in your body EXCEPT RBC
FUNCTION:
presents to/is recognized by CD 8 T Cells and NK cells
Indicates virus infected, non-self, or abnormal self cells
192
In what cells are MCH II found, and what is their function?
FOUND: on antigen-presenting cells (macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells)
FUNCTION:
recognized by helper T cells
involved in antigen presentation and
***activation of an adaptive immune response
193
Which 3 cell types are antigen-presenting cells?
macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells
USUALLY DENDRITIC because that is their SOLE function
194
What events can initiate a local inflammatory response?
Injury (vascular/blood vessel, or tissue)
Presence of a pathogen
195
If a pathogen manages to slip past an epithelial border without damage to tissue, what are the first cells that recognize it and initiate an inflammatory response? By what mechanism is the inflammatory response triggered?
Macrophages and mast cells
example of this is a needle stick- needle-borne pathogens
196
What are the vascular and cellular events of acute inflammation and in what sequence do they occur?
Vascular events:
vasodilation (increased warmth) and
increased permeability (swelling)
Cellular events:
Chemotaxis (migration of different white blood cells to the area),
then Adhesion,
then Transmigration (movement of WBC from blood vessel to interstitial space or tissue itself)
197
What are mast cells?
histamine-filled cells that live in tissue at the site of potential infections
major initiator of inflammatory responses
198
What role do Mast Cells play in inflammation?
They release:
Histamine, which increases vasodilation and permeability, and cause pain
IL8 or neutrophil chemotaxis factor
acidophil chemotaxis factor
Leukotrienes
Prostaglandins
199
Which cells are granulocytes (inducible cells)?
```
B = basophils
E = eosinophils
N= neutrophils
```
200
What cells in the immune system defend against intracellular pathogens?
- Phagocytic cells (scavenger cells)
- Granuloytes (BEN)
- NK Cells
- T cells (CD8)
201
What is the “Acute phase response," and what are the three main organs that it affects?
a local inflammation that has accumulated enough cytokines in the bloodstream to become systemic inflammation
1. Brain (hypothalamus - temp control
2. Bone marrow (increase WBC production)
3. Liver (make more inflammatory proteins)
202
3 cytokines that are most important in the acute phase response
IL1, IL6, TNF alpha
203
What part of the immune system is a natural defense against cancerous growth?
NK Cells and CD-8 cells
204
What are the 2 subtypes of T cells, what surface markers do they express, and what are their respective functions?
1. T cell receptor
FUNCTION: this tells the SPECIFICITY of the cells
2. CD4 receptor
(helper - they oversee the immune response and manage activity) or CD8 receptor (cytotoxic - effector cells that go out and actually fight/kill the pathogen)
FUNCTION: specifies the FUNCTION of the cell
205
The process of inflammation tends to bring about some degree of damage to otherwise healthy local tissue. What cells are responsible for this “collateral damage” ? What inflammatory mediators are responsible?
Cells responsible: Neutrophils and Macrophages
Reactive oxygen species and lysosomes are what cause the damage
206
What are the 4 components of innate immunity?
1. Structural/Chemical Barriers
2. Phagocytic/Scavenger Cells
3. Inflammation
4. Plasma protein systems
207
What is the difference between viruses and bacteria (2 main pathogens)
viruses: hide out in a host cell
bacteria: single-celled organism that occupies and infects Extracellular space
208
What are the 2 components of innate immunity?
B and T lymphocytes
209
What are the first and second waves of cells that respond to local inflammation?
First: Neutrophils
Second: macrocytes
210
What is the function of Dendritic cells?
identifies what antigens have entered and relates information back to control center for action
211
What is the function of Neutrophils?
found in the bloodstream - they are the first cells to migrate to an local inflammatory response
212
What are the 3 Phagocytic scavenger cells (eat things)?
Macrophages
Dendritic
Neutrophils
213
What is the function of Basophils?
their granules are filled with histamine
especially important in allergic reactions — similar in function to mast cells
214
What is the function of Eosinophils?
important in fighting things like parasitic worm infections
also play a role in allergic reactions
215
All macrophages start off as
monocytes
216
What is the difference between tissue macrophages and circulating monocytes?
tissue macrophages: population that already lives in the tissue wherever there might be an infection
circulating monocytes: live in bloodstream, can be recruited to the site of infection/inflammation and become macrophages
217
Which immune cells are found in circulation?
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
218
Which immune cells are resident in tissue?
Dendritic Cells
Mast Cells
Macrophages
219
What is the function of Natural killer cells?
looking for host cells that are abnormal or infected with a virus
220
What is the CD4 T cell and what is its function:
T helper cell
it’s the gatekeeper for all the adaptive immune responses
221
What is the CD8 T cell and what is its function:
cytotoxic T cell
operates just like the NK cell but does it with specificity - looking for host cells infected with particular viruses
222
What are T regulatory cells and what is their function?
type of helper cell that recognizes and prevents an attempt to activate an inappropriate immune response
223
Where do T cells mature?
thymus
224
primary lymphoid structures:
bone marrow and thymus
225
secondary lymphoid structures:
where the mature B and T cells reside and wait to be activated — ex. lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids
226
How do pathogens gain entry?
Encountering or breaking epithelial barrier
227
How are pathogens detected (4 ways)?
1) Tissue phagocytic cells (macrophages/dendritic cells)
2) Peripheral lymphoid tissue phagocytic cells (via lymph fluid)
3) Spleen phagocytic cells (via blood)
4) Detected by circulating B lymphocytes
228
How do phagocytic cells present antigen to T-helper cell?
1) Directly in lymphoid tissue/ spleen
| 2) Phagocytic cell migrates to lymphoid tissue
229
immune cells communicate with each other and with other cells/tissue in the body through
the release of cytokines
230
important cytokines released by the macrophages for inflammation responses include
IL1, IL6 and TNF-alpha
231
Inflammation is the ___ line of defense
second
| first line of defense is barriers
232
smoking causes ciliated
paralysis or loss of ciliated cells
mucus lingers and can lead to increased/repeated respiratory infections
233
You’ll have inflammation ____ how the injury is sustained
regardless of
234
Type 2 diabetes insulin resistance - if the pancreas needs to produce more insulin to accommodate this change, this represents what kind of an injury?
INCREASED FUNCTIONAL DEMAND
Tissue responds with HYPERTROPHY AND HYPERPLASIA - beta cells that produce insulin undergo both
235
2 cell types that start inflammation:
MAST CELLS
MACROPHAGES (live in the tissue, detect the pathogens)
236
Inflammatory responses are always designed to be ____
ACUTE
short lived
damaging in nature
important step for healing
designed to carry antigens to the CD4T cell if necessary
237
What clears away the interstitial fluid, post-inflammation?
Lymphatic system
238
Vascular changes that occur with inflammation
- Vasodilation
- Increased permeability
(Redness, heat, edema)
- Delayed vascular stasis - the blood flow left in the vessel slows down
239
Chronic inflammation is always ___, and if it's not interrupted, it will lead to
pathological
fibrosis (the replacement of tissue with scar tissue)
240
Common causes of chronic inflammation:
- Persistent Infections by certain microorganisms such as tubercle bacilli,
Treponema pallidum (the cause of syphilis) and certain viruses, fungi,
and parasites
- Prolonged exposure to potentially toxic agents (endogenous or exogenous)
- Autoimmunity – ex. rheumatoid arthritis
241
Adaptive immunity:
part of your immune system that recognizes self vs. non-self but can also remember particular pathogens and antigens
