Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
HPG
A
Hypothalamus
(anterior) pituitary
gonads
2
Q
HPT
A
Hypothalamus
(anterior) pituitary
thyroid
3
Q
In females LH does what
A
causes ovulation
4
Q
In females FSH does what
A
controls the menstrual cycle
initiates follicle growth
5
Q
In males LH does what
A
development of testosterone
6
Q
In males FSH does what
A
sperm cell genesis
7
Q
Half life of a hormone
A
the time required for its concentration to decrease to half of its initial concentration
8
Q
Half life is inversely related to
A
metabolic clearance rate
9
Q
PDE
A
phosphodiesterase
ends the 2nd messenger system by dephosphorylating the enzyme
10
Q
Afferent
A
away from the tissue
11
Q
Efferent
A
towards the tissue
12
Q
Three main examples for Afferent vs. Efferent
A
Blood vessels
Lymph vessels
Nerves
13
Q
Types of cell communication
A
Endocrine
Autocrine
Paracrine
Juxtracrine
Intracrine
14
Q
Endocrine cell communication
A
target sites are on distant cells
15
Q
Autocrine cell communication
A
signal is released outside of the cell and acts on itself
16
Q
Paracrine cell communication
A
target sites are on adjacent cells, rapid breakdown of ligand helps prevent distant effects
17
Q
Juxtracrine cell communication
A
ligand on signaling cell binds target cell receptors
18
Q
Intracrine cell communication
A
signal is released within the cell and acts within the cell
19
Q
Organs involved in the endocrine system
A
Pineal gland
pituitary gland
thyroid
adrenal gland
pancreas
uterus/ovaries in female
testes in male
20
Q
Posterior pituitary hormones
A
ADH
Oxytocin
21
Q
ADH is released by the _____, targets the _____, and effects ______.
A
released by the hypothalamus
stored in the posterior pituitary
targets the kidneys, sweat glands, circulatory system
Effects water balance
22
Q
Oxytocin (OT) is made by the ______, targets the ______, and effects _______
A
made by the posterior pituitary
targets the female reproductive system
effects- triggers uterine contractions during childbirth
23
Q
Anterior pituitary hormones
A
LH-luteinizing hormone
FSH-follicle stimulating hormone
TSH- Thyroid stimulating hormone
PRL-Prolactin
GH-growth hormone
ACTH-adrenocorticotropic hormone
24
Q
Luteinizing hormone is released by _______, released from the _______, targets the _______, and effects _____
A
Released by GnRH
Released from the anterior pituitary
targets the reproductive system
stimulates production of sex hormones by the gonads
25
Follicle Stimulating hormone is released by _____, released from _____, targets ______, and effects _____
released by GnRH
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the reproductive system
effect- stimulates production of sperm and eggs
26
Thyroid Stimulating hormone is released by _____, released from the _____, targets _____, and effects ______
released by Thyroid Releasing Hormone
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the thyroid gland
effect- stimulates the release of thyroid hormone which regulates metabolism
27
Prolactin is released by _____, released from _____, targets ______, and effects ______
released by Prolactin releasing hormone (inhibited by Parathyroid inhibiting hormone)
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the mammary glands
effect- promotes milk production
28
Growth hormone is released by ______, released from _____, targets _____, and effects ______
released by growth hormone releasing hormone (inhibited by Growth hormone inhibiting hormone)
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the liver, bone, muscle
effect- induces targets to produce Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) which then stimulates body growth and a higher metabolic rate
29
ACTH is released by _____, released from _____, targets _____, and effects _____
released by CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)
released from the anterior pituitary
targets the adrenal glands
effect- induces targets to produce glucocorticoids, which regulate metabolism and the stress response
30
Tissue types in the pituitary
PD-pars distalis- anterior
PN-pars nervosa- posterior
PI- pars intermedia- intermediate
31
Anterior pituitary cell types
acidophils
basophils
chromophobes
32
Acidophils do what
protein hormones
GH, PRL
33
Basophils do what
glycoprotein hormones
ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH
34
Chromophobes are
support cells
35
The hypothalamus releases growth hormone-releasing hormone that stimulates
the anterior pituitary to release growth hormone
36
The release of growth hormone
stimulates adipose cells to break down stored fat, fueling growth effects
increases uptake of amino acids from blood and enhances cellular proliferation and reduces apoptosis
stimulates liver to break down glycogen into glucose, fueling growth effects
37
When the liver is stimulated by GH it does what
breaks down glycogen into glucose
releases IFG-1 which stimulates growth effects further
38
High IGF-1 levels are perceived by the _______ and cause _______
hypothalamus
cause GHIH release to inhibit GH in the anterior pituitary
slows growth effects
39
ADH does what
regulates blood pressure
40
Hormone regulation techniques
feedback loops
half life and clearance rates
source
targets (receptors)
41
Galactorrhea
abnormal or prolonged lactation/overgrowth of the cells that produce prolactin
42
Cushing's Syndrome
too much cortisol (glucocorticoid)
pituitary tumor overproduces ACTH
43
Growth Hormone Problems
hyposomatotropinism
hypersomatotropinism
caused by trauma or a tumor
44
Hyposomatotropinism
not enough growth hormone
dwarfism
45
Hypersomatotropinism
too much growth hormone
In adults it leads to acromegaly
In children it leads to gigantism
46
Polyuria
produces abnormally high volumes of dilute urine
47
Polydipsia
excessive thirst
48
Hyponatremia
low Na+ blood retention
49
Hypernatremia
High Na+ in the blood
50
Hyponatremia results from
excessive urine
51
Hypernatremia results from
extreme thirst
52
Diabetes insipidus four types
Central
nephrogenic
dipsogenic
gestational
53
Diabetes insipidus- Central type is caused by
lack of ADH
54
Diabetes insipidus- nephrogenic is caused by
ADH production is okay but kidneys don't respond
55
Diabetes insipidus- dipsogenic is caused by
problem with hypothalamus makes you thirsty- drink too much
56
Diabetes insipidus- gestational is caused by
placenta making too much enzyme that breaks down ADH
57
Thyroid gland hormones
thyroxine T4
triiodothyronine T3
Calcitonin
58
Thyroxine T4 and triiodothyronine T3 are what class of hormone
amine
59
Thyroxine T4 and triiodothyronine effect
stimulate basal metabolic rate
60
Calcitonin is what class of hormone
peptide
61
Calcitonin effects
reduces blood Ca2+ levels
62
Hypothyroidism
levels of thyroid hormone are low
gland can be small or large (goiter)
weight gain, tiredness, cold
Iodine deficiency
63
Hyperthyroidism
levels of thyroid hormone are high
high energy levels, skinny, overheat easy
64
Thyroid Hormone synthesis
1. inorganic iodide is transported into the gland
2. intrathyroidal iodide is oxidized to iodine under the influence of H2O2 and peroxidase
3. iodine is bound in thyroglobulin to tyrosine, forming monoiodotryrosine and diiodotyrosine
4. the iodotyrosines are enzymatically coupled to form thyroxine and triiodothyronine
5. iodothyronines, T4 and T3, are stored in thyroglobulin until released into circulation
6. the unused iodotyrosines are deiodinated and the iodide is recycled
65
parathyroid hormone is the opposite of
calcitonin
66
Parathyroid hormone effects
increases blood calcium levels when they are low
67
Adrenal gland regions
medulla- middle
cortex- outer
68
Adrenal cortex zones
Zona reticularis- inner
Zona fasciculata- middle
Zona glomerulosa- outer
69
The Zona reticularis secretes what hormone
mineralcorticoids
Aldosterone
70
Zona fasciculata secretes
glucocorticoids
cortisol
corticosterone
cortisone
71
Zona glomerulosa secretes
Gonadocorticoids
72
Hormones of the Adrenal glands
Aldosterone
Cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone
epinephrine/norepinephrine
73
Aldosterone is what class of hormone
steroid
74
Aldosterone effect
increases blood Na+ levles
75
Cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone hormone class
steroid
76
cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone effect
increases blood glucose leveles
77
Epinephrine, norepinephrine hormone class
amine
78
Epinephrine, norepinephrine effect
stimulates fight or flight response
79
3 plasma proteins that are found bound to thyroid hormone
thyroxine
transthyretin
albumin
80
Parathyroid glands have what type of receptors
calcium sensing that mobilize intracellular calcium in response to activation
81
Two cell types in the parathyroid
oxyphil cells- function unknown thought to be retired chief cells
Chief cells- make/secrete parathyroid hormone
82
Parathyroid hormone does what
stimulates osteoclasts, inhibits osteoblasts
stimulates reabsorption int kidney
stimulates calcitriol in the kidneys
83
thyroid hormone function
regulation of basal metabolic rate
protein synthesis
normal fetal and childhood development
interact with repro hormones
increase sensitivity to catecholamines
84
Pineal gland function
light induced activation of suprachiasmatic nucleus
which prevents melatonin secretion from the pinacocytes
85
Pinacocytes create
melatonin
86
Reproductive hormones of the testes
testosterone
Inhibin
87
Testosterone is what class of hormone
steroid
88
testosterone effect on testes
stimulates development of male secondary sex characteristics and sperm production
89
inhibin hormone class
protein
90
inhibin effect on testes
inhibits FSH release from the pituitary
91
hormones of the ovaries
estrogens and progesterones
92
Estrogens and progesterones hormone class
steroid
93
estrogens and progesterones effect on the ovaries
stimulates development of female secondary sex characteristics and prepare body for childbirth
94
hormone of the placenta
human chorionic gonadotropin
95
human chorionic gonadotropin hormone class
protein
96
human chorionic gonadotropin effect on placenta
promotes progesterone synthesis during pregnancy and inhibits immune response against the fetus
97
Length of the estrus cycle in cattle
21 days
98
What happens in the luteal phase of the estrus cycle
Under the influence of progesterone
day 1-17
ovulation marks the beginning of this phase
group of follicles are recruited and grown in response to FSH
One follicle becomes dominant and matures in to an ovum
LH causes the cells on the ovary that made up the follicle differentiate and make a Corpus luteum
CL makes progesterone which inhibits LH and FSH and prevents ovulation
If not pregnant prostaglandin lyses the luteal tissue and causes regression
99
Follicular phase of the estrus cycle
begins with the removal of progesterone which allows for GnRH pulses
Results in more FSH and LH production which supports follicular development
The dominant follicle produces increasing amounts of estrogen that once it reaches threshold, a surge of LH results in ovulation
100
How is vitamin D made
a precursor gets converted in the skin by UV, then modified in the liver, and modified again in the kidney to the active form
101
General Adaptation syndrome GAS is
responses to stress- 3 stages
102
3 stages of GAS
1. alarm reaction-fight or flight-short term
2. resistance-adapt metabolism
3. exhaustion-depression, immune suppression, weight gain
103
RAAS (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system)
Blood pressure falls
kidneys release renin
renin splits angiotensinogen (made in liver) into pieces- angiotensin I
Angiotensin is inactive and flows through the blood, split by ACE in lungs and kidneys to make angiotensin II which is active
angiotensin II causes arterioles to constrict- increasing blood pressure and triggering adrenal glands to release aldosterone to pituitary and ADH
Aldosterone and ADH cause kidneys to retain sodium which increases sodium and causes water retention
104
Endocrine pancreas synthesizes and secretes hormones into the
blood
105
Where the cell types in the endocrine pancreas reside
islets of langerhans
106
Cell types in the Islets of langerhan
alpha, beta, delta, PP cells
which make glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide
107
Exocrine pancreas synthesizes and secretes
digestive hormones
108
Insulin is made in
the pancreas by beta cells
109
Hormones of the pancreas
Insulin
glucagon
110
Insulin is what hormone class
protein
111
Insulin effects
reduces blood glucose levels
112
Glucagon is what hormone class
protein
113
Glucagon effect
inhibits blood glucose levels
114
Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 is
autoimmune- attacks beta cells that make insulin
115
Diabetes Mellitus Type 2
acquired insulin resistance
beta cells secrete insulin and become exhausted
116
Kidney hormones
Renin
Calcitriol
erythropoietin EPO
117
Renin effect
stimulates release of aldosterone
118
Calcitriol effect
aids in absorption of Ca2+
119
Erythropoietin EPO effects
triggers the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow
120
Adipose tissue hormone
leptin
121
Leptin effect
promotes satiety signals in the brain
122
Skin hormones
Cholecalciferol
123
Cholecalciferol effect
modified into vitamin D
124
Liver hormones
Insulin
angiotensinogen
125
Insulin is triggered by
food in intestine
blood glucose levels
126
Organs/glands that don't require insulin to take up glucose
RBC, brain, liver, kidneys, small intestine lining, lactating mammary glands
127
Target cells of insulin
skeletal muscle and adipocytes
lots of them so they balance out the organs that don't need insulin to take up glucose
128
Insulin Action
activates tyrosine kinase receptors
move intracellular vesicles with glucose transporters to the cell membrane
fuse and expose glucose transporters to extracellular fluid which then move glucose into the cell by facilitative diffusion
129
Glycogen
branched
how glucose is stored
does not affect glucose equilibrium
130
bonds in glycogen
1.4 and 1.6
131
Insulin stimulates
glycolysis
glycogenesis
lipogenesis
protein synthesis
132
Insulin inhibits
glycogenolysis
gluconeogenesis
133
Insulin like growth factor (IGF-1) is secreted in the _____ and effects _____
liver
stimulates bodily growth
134
what is called the 2nd brain
the gut
135
Alimentary tract
goes from mouth to anus
136
Layers of the GI tract
Mucosa
submucosa
muscularis
serosa
137
epithelial lining meant for protection uses
stratifies squamous
nothing gets in/no absorption
138
epithelial lining meant for absorption uses
simple columnar
has the height to fit take up, modification, and transport out of
139
Lumen
the opening in the middle
140
goblet cells
column shaped cells that secrete mucus
141
mucus
secreted by mucus membranes for lubrication and protection
142
Enteroendocrine cells
make hormones and secrete them in the gut
143
mucosa layer contains
lamina propia- loose CT
- blood and lymph vessels
-MALT-mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
muscularis mucosa- smooth muscle layer that tone creates folds
144
Submucosa layer contains
dense CT
blood, lymph, submucosal glands, nerves
muscularis externa- not at certain parts
145
Serosa layer
only in the abdominal cavity
loose CT layer
146
Two types of GI nerve supply
intrinsic
extrinsic
147
intrinsic nerves
enteric neurons independent of the CNS
mouth to anus
148
Myenteric plexus is responsible for
peristalsis
149
submucosal plexus
submucosa
regulates digestive secretions
reacts to food/chemicals/nutrients
150
Extrinsic nerves
autonomic nervous system
fight or flight-inhibits intrinsic
rest and digest-stimulates intrinsic
151
Blood supply to the GI tract is used to
transport absorbed AAs and carbs
supply nutrients to gut cells
152
The hepatic portal system makes sure that
the liver gets first shot at processing and storing what is absorbed
153
During rest and digest what happens to blood flow
25% goes to the gut to aid with function
154
GI tract peritoneum layers
parietal
visceral
155
parietal layer
lines abdominal wall
156
visceral layer
surrounds the gut organs
157
6 activities of GIT
ingestion
propulsion
mechanical/physical digestion
chemical digestion
absorption
defecation
158
Function of the mouth
break up food particles
159
function of salivary glands
moisten and lubricate food
amylase digests polysaccharides
160
function of esophagus
transport food
161
Function of liver
break down and build biological molecules
store vitamins and iron
destroy old blood cells
destroy poisons
secrete bile
162
Function of gallbladder
store and concentrate bile
163
Function of stomach
stores and churns food
pepsin digest protein
HCl breaks down food and kills germs
mucus protects the stomach
limited absorption
164
Function of small intestine
absorb nutrients, most water
peptidase digest proteins
sucrases digest sugars
amylase digests polysaccharides
165
Function of pancreas
hormones regulate glucose levels
bicarbonate neutralizes stomach acid
trypsin and chymotrypsin digest proteins
amylase digest polysaccharides
lipase digest lipids
166
Function of large intestine
reabsorption of some water
forms and stores feces
167
function of anus
opening for eliminating feces
168
function of rectum
store and expels feces
169
chyme
soup of digesta, acid and enzymes
170
segmentation
peristalsis forward and reverse for more movement
171
Long reflexes are
extrinsic
172
short reflexes are
intrinsic
173
Endocrine two secretions
Gastrin
Secretin
174
Gastrin
secreted in stomach
food present stimulates acid secretion from parietal cells
175
Secretin
secreted in duodenum
neutralizes stomach acid
176
CCK- cholecytokinin
stimulates pancreatic enzymes and bile
177
GIP-gastric inhibitory peptide
slows motility and emptying
178
Plexus
network of nerves, blood, or lymph vessels
179
Omentum
a fold of the peritoneum
180
Greater omentum
lies superficial of the small intestine and transverse colon
site of fat deposition in overweight people
181
lesser Omentum
suspends the stomach from the inferior border of the liver
provides a pathway for structures connecting to the liver
182
Glucagon-like peptide I
tissue specific posttranslational modification of proglucagon
produced by enteroendocrine upon food intake
183
Oral cavity
the mouth
184
Labia
lips
185
oral vestibule
the space between the soft tissue and the teeth and gums
186
Fauces
the narrow passage from the mouth to the pharynx situated between the soft palate and the base of the tongue
187
Hard palate
a thin horizontal bony plate made up of two bones of the facial skeleton, located in the roof of the mouth
188
soft palate
the muscular part at the back of the roof of the mouth
189
Uvula
the soft flap of tissue that hangs down at the back of the mouth
190
Tonsils palatine/lingual
two round, fleshy masses in the back of the throat
part of the immune system
191
Job of the tongue
creates the bolus
192
Papillae
tastebuds/ touch receptors
193
Lingual lipase
under the tongue
releases digestion enzyme for lipids
194
Lingual frenulum
folds of mucus membrane under the center of the tongue
anchors the tongue
195
Three salivary glands
submandibular
sublingual
parotid
196
submandibular
under the mandible
197
sublingual salivary glands are located
under the tongue
198
parotid salivary glands are located
beneath the front of each ear
199
Job of saliva
lubricate and digest
200
Components of saliva
95% water
amylase
bicarb and phosphate
201
Salivation is controlled by
autonomic nervous system and conditioning
202
Deciduous
baby teeth
203
incisors
narrow edged tooth at the front of the mouth
used for cutting
204
Cuspids
canine teeth
pointed tooth between the incisors and premolars
205
Bicuspids
permanent teeth located between the canine teeth and the molars
premolar teeth
206
molars
a tooth with a rounded or flattened surface adapted for grinding
207
Cusp
tip or point
208
Digestive function of lips and cheeks
confine food between teeth
209
digestive functions of the salivary glands
secrete saliva
210
digestive function of tongue extrinsic muscle
move the tongue sideways and in and out to shape food into a bolus and manipulate to swallow
211
Digestive function of tongue intrinsic muscle
changes tongues shape and manipulate food
212
Digestive function of taste buds
sense food in the mouth and sense taste
213
Digestive function of lingual glands
secrete lingual lipase to break down lipids
214
digestive function of teeth
shred and crush food
mechanical digestion
215
Parts of the pharynx
nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
216
Job of nasopharynx
breathing and speaking
217
Job of oropharynx
breathe and digest
218
job of Laryngopharynx
breathe and digest
219
The upper esophageal sphincter job
controls movement of food from pharynx to esophagus
220
The lower esophageal sphincter job
movement of food from esophagus to stomach
221
Peristalsis
propels bolus through the esophagus
222
Deglutition means
swallowing
223
Three phases of deglutition
Voluntary
Pharyngeal
Esophageal
224
What happens during the pharyngeal phase during deglutition
reflex to ovula
soft palate causes deglutition apnea
laryngeal muscle closes trachea
225
What happens during the esophageal phase
enters esophagus triggering peristalsis and mucus
relaxes cardiac sphincter
226
4 regions of the stomach
cardia
fundus
body
pylorus
227
what does the surface of the stomach have
mucus cells and gastric pits
228
Cells of gastric glands
Parietal cells
chief cells
mucous neck cells
enteroendocrine cells
229
Parietal cells are located where and do what
in the middle of the gastric gland
secrete HCl and intrinsic factor required for vit B12 absorption in the SI
230
Chief cells are located where and does what
base of the gastric gland
secretes pepsinogen
231
Mucous neck cells do what
secrete thin mucus used to protect
232
Enteroendocrine cells do what
secrete hormones in the GIT
233
Hormones of Enteroendocrine cells of the stomach
Gastrin
Ghrelin
somatostatin
234
Gastrin is secreted by, targets what, and does what action
secreted by G cells
small intestine- muscle contraction
Ileocecal valve- releases
Large intestine- mass movement- defecation
235
Ghrelin is secreted by, targets what, and does what action
mucosa
stimulated by fasting
targets hypothalamus
effects hunger/satiety
236
Somatostatin is secreted by, targets what, and does what action
mucosa
stomach-decrease secretions, motility, emptying
pancreas- decreases secretions
small intestine- decreases absorption and blood flow
237
Gastric secretion 3 phases
cephalic
gastric
intestinal
238
What happens during the Cephalic phase of Gastric secretion
reflex phase- conditioned reflex
no food in the stomach yet
239
What happens during the gastric phase of gastric secretion
3-4 hours
food enters, stomach stretches, secretions and contractions
240
What happens during the intestinal phase of gastric secretion
Excitatory- chyme in the duodenum- enteric gastrin and increases gastric juice
Inhibitory- duodenum is full- inhibits secretion and close pyloric sphincter
241
Components of the gastric mucosal barrier
mucus
bicarbonate
tight junction
242
Stomach digestive functions- mechanical
mixing waves
pyloris filtering
gastric emptying
243
Stomach digestive functions- chemical
fundus stores food and gas
mixing
protein digestion
intoinisic factor
244
Pernicious anemia is
impaired absorption of vitamin B12
parietal cells are targeted by antibodies
245
Megoblastic Anemia are identifiable by
large nucleated red blood cell precursors
caused by deficiency or defective utilization of vitamin B12
246
Haptocorrin does what
binds B12 and protects from acidity
247
Haptocorrin is secreted by
gastric glands
248
Digestive functions of the small intestine
primary digestive organ
nearly all absorption
249
The key to small intestine digestion and absorption
surface area
250
Parts of the small intestine in order
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
251
Duodenum
shortest part of the small intestine
starts at pyloric sphincter
C shaped
252
Ampulla of Vater
marks the end of anterior/start of mid section
common vile duct and pancreatic duct meet
253
Middle section of the small intestine
Jejunum
254
Ileum is the
last part of the small intestine- joins cecum at ileocecal sphincter
largest- thicker, vascular, more folds
255
Three unique features of the Small Intestine
circular folds
villi
microvilli
256
Goblet cells produce
mucus
257
Paneth cells produce
lysosome
258
G Cells produce
gastrin
259
I Cells produce
Cholecystokinin CCK
260
K Cells produce
insulinotropic peptide
stimulates the release of insulin
261
M Cells produce
motilin
262
S Cells produce
secretin
263
Mechanical digestion in the SI includes
segmentation
peristalsis
gastrolienal reflex
264
Segmentation
constrictions that move with peristalsis
265
Gastrolienal Reflex
digestion in the stomach triggers segmentation
Gastrin stimulates ileal motility
266
The small intestine digests
proteins, carbs, lipids
and reabsorbs water
267
MALT stands for
Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissues
immune cells in the mucosa
