Exam 3. Flashcards
(194 cards)
1
Q
hematocrit
A
is the fractional contribution of erythrocytes to the blood which is calculated by determining the percentage of whole blood that consists of erythrocytes
2
Q
Polycythemia
A
is indicated by a high hematocrit consisting of a higher than normal concentration of erythrocytes in the blood
3
Q
Complete blood count (CBC)
A
is an analysis of blood that provides much useful information. Consists of a red blood count, hemoglobin and hematocrit measurements, a white blood count, and a differential white blood count
4
Q
Red blood count (RBC)
A
is the number (expressed in millions) of red blood cells per microliter of blood. The condition called erythrocytosis is an overabundance of red blood cells
5
Q
Hemoglobin measurement
A
determines the amount of hemoglobin in a given volume of blood, usually expressed as grams of hemoglobin per 100 mL of blood
6
Q
White blood count
A
measures the total number of white blood cells in the blood
7
Q
Differential white blood count
A
determines the percentage of each of the five kinds of white blood cells
8
Q
Prothrombin time measurement
A
expresses how long it takes for the blood to start clotting
9
Q
Leukopenia
A
is a lower than normal WBC resulting from depression or destruction of the red marrow
10
Q
Leukocytosis
A
is an abnormally high WBC.
11
Q
Leukemia
A
often results in leukocytosis, but the white blood cells have an abnormal structure and function as well.
12
Q
importance of water in plasma
A
provides a dissolving and suspending medium for solutes and formed element
13
Q
albumins
A
- most abundant plasma proteins that make a large contribution to the osmotic pressure of plasma
- synthesized by the liver
14
Q
globulins
A
-variety of plasma proteins that transport lipids, steroid hormones, and other substances
-play a critical role in forming blood clots
0important in defending against foreign substances
15
Q
fribinogens
A
- synthesized by the liver
- key plasma protein in the formation of blood clots
16
Q
what is serum?
A
-plasma from which fibrinogen and other clotting proteins have been removed
17
Q
what are the small nutrients present in plasma
A
-glucose, lipids, and amino acids and other materials absorbed from the intestines and used by cells throughout the body
18
Q
what are the metabolic wastes from plasma
A
consist of urea and lactic acid
19
Q
what gases are present in the plasma
A
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
20
Q
what electrolytes are present in the plasma
A
sodium. potassium, and chloride
21
Q
Erythropoiesis
A
synthesis or new erythrocytes
22
Q
what are Hematopoietic stem cells
A
blood-forming precursor cells from which all blood cells develop
23
Q
Hemopoietic growth factor
A
- cytokines that determine the development of a particular type of blood cell
- include colony stimulating factors and interleukins
24
Q
Erythropoietin
A
is produced in the kidney and stimulates erythrocyte production
25
iron-deficiency anemia
anemia caused by a lack of iron in the diet
| -erythrocytes are smaller than normal due to a decrease in the amount of hemoglobin
26
pernicious anemia
anemia caused by the lack of vitamin B12
- erythrocytes are larger than normal but number decreases
- overall increase in the hematocrit
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folic acid deficiency anemia
anemia that results from a lack of folic acid
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aplastic anemia
anemia caused by certain drugs or radiation resulting in an inability of stem cells to generate mature blood cells
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hemolytic anemia
anemia that results when cells rupture at an abnormally high rate
30
what is the most abundant leukocyte
neutrophils
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what leukocyte does not have prominent granules,but types include monocytes and lymphocytes?
agranulocytes
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elevated levels of what leukocyte indicates a bacterial or viral infection
neutrophils
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neutrophils
phagocytes that engulf and digest microorganisms, abnormal cells, and foreign particles present in blood and tissues
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monocytes
phagocytes that decrease with HIV infection, rheumatoid arthritis and exposure to steroids
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eosinophils
phagocytes whose main contribution in defense is in attacking parasitic invaders that are too big to be engulfed by the most abundant leukocytes by attaching their bodies and discharging toxic molecules
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which leukocytes has protein-containing vesicles in their cytoplasm known as cytoplasmic granules
granulocytes
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what types does granulocytes include
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
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what are lymphocytes developed from
lymphoblasts
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what does eosinophils release and what does this cause damage to?
release toxic molecules that can also damage normal tissues and may trigger allergic reactions
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what types of cell does lymphocytes include
B cells, T cells, and Null cells
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what type of leukocyte promotes inflammation and their levels are elevated in asthmatics
eosinophils
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when does a decreased level of lymphocyte mean
decreased levels occur with immunodeficiency, disease, lupus, and increased levels of steroid
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what are basophils
non-phagocytic, defend the body against larger parasites releasing toxic molecules that damage invaders
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what are monocytes from
monoblasts
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how do monocytes develop
migrate into tissues, where they become larger and develop into very active phagocytic cells known as macrophages
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what do basophils release
histamine, heparin, and other chemicals that contribute significantly to allergic reactions
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what are B cells
lymphocytes that differentiate into plasma cells that secrete antibodies that target the immune response against a specific antigen
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what are t cells
lymphocytes include cells that promote immune responses
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cytotoxic T cells
destroy abnormal cells
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helper T cells
secrete chemicals promoting actions of other leukocytes
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suppressor T cells
ells that suppress the immune response
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null cells
lack the cell membrane components, most are natural killer cells
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In healthy endothelial cells, arachidonic acid is converted to prostacyclin, which inhibits what?
formation of blood clots
54
Fibrinogen is converted by thrombin to form
fibrin
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Hemophilia is a genetic clotting disorder usually characterized by the absence of
factor VIII
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Low dosages of aspirin inhibit clotting by blocking the formation of
thromboxane A2
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High doses of aspirin can stimulate clotting by inhibiting the synthesis of
prostacyclin
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what is fibrin
chemical forms the meshwork of the blood clot
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In activated platelets, arachidonic acid is converted to thromboxane A2, which stimulates
formation of blood clot
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what does protein C inhibit
both the intrinsic and extrinsic clotting pathways?
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what does factor X activate
prothrombin
| -converge point for both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways
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why is vitamin K required in the diet
to prevent excessive bleeding
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Type O Blood contains what antigens
neither A nor B antigens on the surface of red blood cells
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Type A blood contains what antigens
A antigens on the surface of red blood cells
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Type B blood contains what antigens
B antigens on the surface of red blood cells
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Type AB blood contains what antigens
both A and B antigens on the surface of red blood cells
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Type A blood has what antibodies
has anti-B antibodies in the plasma
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Type B blood has what antibodies
has anti-A antibodies in the plasma
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Type O blood has what antibodies
has both anti-A nor anti-B antibodies in the plasma
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Type AB blood has what antibodies
has neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies in the plasma
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what happens when a person has type A blood
will agglutinate when mixed with anti-A antibodies, but not agglutinate when mixed with anti-B antibodies, because they have A antigens
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what happens when a person has type B blood
will agglutinate when mixed with anti-B antibodies, but not agglutinate when mixed with anti-A antibodies, because they have B antigens
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what does external respiration include
-exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between lung air spaces and blood (or tissues and blood) by diffusion
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what is internal respiration also known as
cellular respiration
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what is external respiration
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and body tissues
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what is respiration
process of gas exchange
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what does external respiration involve
the respiratory and circulatory systems
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what is pulmonary ventilation a part of and what does it involve
- external respiration
| - involves movement of air into the lungs (inspiration) and out of the lungs (expiration) by bulk flow
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air into the lung
inspiration
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air out of the lungs
expiration
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internal respiration
use of oxygen within mitochondria to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation, and the production of carbon dioxide as a waste product
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muscles used for inspiration
diaphragm and external intercostals
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muscles used for expiration
internal intercostals, abdominal muscles, sternocleidomastoids, scalenes
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occurs when sympathetic stimulation causes relaxation of the smooth muscles and increases the radius of bronchioles
bronchodialation
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occurs when parasympathetic stimulation causes contraction of smooth muscle and decreases the radius of bronchioles
bronchoconstirction
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minute ventilation
the volume of air moved into the lungs every minute
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alveolar ventilation
the volume of air that reaches the respiratory zone each minute
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is distinguished by decreased lung compliance, peak expiratory flow rate, forced vital capacity, total lung capacity and vital capacity
restrictive pulmonary disorder
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- chronic inflammatory pulmonary disorder
- reversible obstruction of the airways (increased airway resistance, secretion of mucus, inflammatory response and histamine release)
- treated by corticosteroids in order to reduce inflammation of the airways
athsma
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distinguished by increased in airway resistance, residual volume and total lung capacity, as well as decreased forced expiratory volume and peak expiratory flow rate
obstructive pulmonary disorder
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Carbamino effect
Describes a change in the confirmation of hemoglobin that is induced by an increase in CO2
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Bohr effect
Refers to a decrease in pH which decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen
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Haldane Effect
Describes the increase in the affinity of hemoglobin for CO2 in the presence of a lowered PO2
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respiratory acidosis can occur during what
hypoventilation
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what will cause changes in PCO2 that are directed by the chemoreceptors which causes a decrease in breathing rate and depth of breathing
hyperventilation
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what is anemia
is a decrease in the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
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condition where the uptake of oxygen and unloading of carbon dioxide is reduced as a consequence of a thickening of the diffusion barrier by fluid accumulation in the alveoli, typically caused by left heart failure
pulmonary edema
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what is hypocapnia
is a deficiency of carbon dioxide in the blood
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what is hypercapnia
is an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood
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what is hypoxemia
is a deficiency of oxygen in the blood
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what is hypoxia
is a deficiency of oxygen in the tissues
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what is hypoventilation
is a condition in which ventilation is insufficient to meet the metabolic demands of the body
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what is hyperventilation
is a condition in which ventilation exceeds the metabolic demands of the body
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what is apnea
is a temporary cessation of breathing
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what is dyspnea
is labored or difficulty breathing
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what is tachypnea
is rapid, shallow breathing
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what is eupenea
is normal quiet breathing
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what is hyperpnea
is an increase in ventilation to meet an increase in the metabolic demands of the body
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what would hypoventilation lead to
a decrease in PO2 and increase in PCO2 within the systemic arteries
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what would hyperventilation lead to
an increase in PO2 and decrease in PCO2 within the systemic arteries
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vitamin D3
important factor in regulating blood calcium and phosphate levels
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what is renin necessary for
production of angiotensin II to regulate salt and water balance for long-term control of blood pressure
113
filtration factor
GRF/renal plasma flow
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filtered load
GRF x plasma concentration
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clearance
Excretion rate/plasma concentration
| or (urine concentration x urine flow rate)/plasma concentration
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excretion rate
Urine concentration x urine flow rate
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if a substance is neither reabsorbed nor secreted, then its excretion rate is equal to the
filtered load
118
what does glomerular capillary osmotic pressure favor
absorption
119
what does Bowman's capsule osmotic pressure favor
filtration
120
what does glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure favor
filtration
121
what does Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure favor
absorption
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hormone that stimulates sodium reabsorption by binding to receptors in the tubular epithelial cells of the collecting duct and distal tubule
aldosterone
123
hormone that stimulates water reabsorption by binding to receptors in the tubular epithelial cells of the collecting duct and distal tubule
ADH
124
substance which is not produced in the body but must be injected in order to provide a measure of glomerular filtration rate through clearance
inulin
125
what do principle cells regulate and where does this occur
sodium and water balance in the kidneys
| -distal tubules and collecting ducts
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what do intercalated cells regulate and were does this occur
gulation of acid-base balance in the kidneys
| -distal tubules and collecting ducts
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hypervolemia
Is a greater plasma volume than normal
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hypovalemia
is a lower plasma level than normal
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normovalemia
Is a state of normal blood volume
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Under this condition cell volume does not change and the osmolarity in both extracellular and intracellular fluids remain the same
osmotic equilibrium
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hypernatremia
Is associated with increase in plasma sodium levels to greater than normal
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hyperkalemia
is associated with increase in plasma potassium levels to greater than normal
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hypokalemia
Is associated with a decrease in plasma potassium levels to less than normal
134
hyponatrimia
Is associated with a decrease in plasma sodium levels to less than normal
135
hypercalcemia
Is associated with an increase in plasma calcium levels to greater than normal
136
hypocalcemia
Is associated with a decrease in plasma calcium levels to less than norma
137
Renin is released by ____________ of the afferent arteriole.
granular cells
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released from the adrenal cortex in response to increases in plasma potassium.
aldosterone
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primary function is to increase sodium secretion thereby decreasing sodium reabsorption.
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
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converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I
renin
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converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II
Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
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acts directly in the hypothalamus to stimulate an increase in thirst.
angiotensin II
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release is triggered by low blood pressure.
renin
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is synthesized by the live
Angiotensinogen
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is released in response to the distension of the atrial wall due to an increase in plasma volume
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
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is released by granular cells of the afferent arteriole
renin
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causes principal cells to decrease the number of open sodium channels in the apical membrane
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
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stimulates the release of aldosterone
Angiotensin II
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increases the number of potassium channels in the principal cells of the apical membrane
aldosterone
150
Is a decrease in pH (increase in hydrogen ion concentration to less than 7.35
acidosis
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Is an increase in pH (decrease in hydrogen ion concentration to greater than 7.45
alkalosis
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The activity of the _________________ can increase pH by a hyperventilation-induced decrease in PCO2
respiratory system
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Can result from high-protein diet through the production of phosphoric acid and sulfuric acid
metabolic acidosis
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Can result from heavy exercise through the production of lactic acid
metabolic acidosis
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Can result from high-fat diet through the breakdown of fat into fatty acids
metabolic acidosis
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Can result from severe diarrhea through the loss of bicarbonate
metabolic acidosis
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Can result from excessive vomiting through the loss of hydrogen ions
metabolic alkalosis
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A decrease in PCO2 within the lung will result in a weak vasodilation in the pulmonary vasculature and a _________________in the bronchioles
bronchconstriction
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A local ______________within the alveolus will result in an increase in the ventilation-perfusion ratio in that region
bronchodialation
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A _______________ of pulmonary arteriole diameter will result in an increase in the ventilation-perfusion ratio in that region
vasoconstriction
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The primary effect of increased PO2 in the lungs is to cause ___________ which decreases the ventilation-perfusion ratio back to a normal level
vasodialation
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The primary effect of increased PCO2 in the lungs is to cause _____________ which increases the ventilation-perfusion ratio back to a normal level
bronchdialation
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the volume of air present in the lungs when the lungs are at rest (between breaths)
functional residual capacity
164
when elastic recoil of the lungs is balanced by the elastic recoil of the chest walls, the lung volume is said to be equal to
functional residual capacity
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is the volume of air remaining in the lungs following a max expiration
residual volume
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is the volume of air exchanged with the environment during an unforced breath
tidal volume
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is the max volume of air that can be inspired following a resting inspiration
inspiratory reserve volume
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is the max volume of air that can be inspired following a resting expiration
inspiratory capacity
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is the max volume of air that can be expired following a max inspiration
vital capacity
170
is the max volume of air that can be expired following a resting expiration
expiratory reserve volume
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is the volume of air in the lungs following a max inspiration
total lung capacity
172
is equal to tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume
inspiratory capacity
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is equal to residual volume + expiratory reserve volume
functional residual capacity
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is equal to tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume
vital capacity
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is equal to tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
total lung capacity
176
is responsible for the presence of a negative intrapleural pressure at max expiration
residual volume
177
is a measurement that cannot be determined by spirometer
residual volume
178
substance reabsorbed in the proximal tubule
Na, Cl, K, Ca, HCO3, water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, urea, choline
179
substance secreted in the proximal tubule
H ions
180
substances reabsorbed in the descending loop of henle
water
181
substances reabsorbed in the ascending loop of henle
Na, Cl, K, Mg, Ca
182
substances reabsorbed in the distal tubule
Na, Ca, Cl, water
183
substance secreted in the distal tubule
K, H ions
184
substances reabsorbed in the collecting duct
Na, K, Cl, Ca, HCo2, H ions, urea, water
185
substance secreted in the collecting duct
K and H ions
186
movement from glomerular capillaries in to Bowmans capsule
filtration
187
movement from peritublar capillaries in renal tubules
secretion
188
what mostly occurs in the proximal tubule and isn't regulated
reabsorption
189
substances can enter the renal tubules by filtration and what?
secretion
190
is calculated by filtration + secretion - reabsorption
excretion
191
solutes that enter the lumen of the renal tubules are excreted unless?
they are reabsorbed
192
if the amount of solute secreted per minute is greater than the filtered load, then the NET effect on the solutes is
secretion into the renal tubules
193
the basement membrane of the Bowmans capsule acts as the primary what for proteins
filtration ( for proteins)
194
renal process in which molecules are selectively more from tubule lumen into the interstitial space and removed from kidneys by peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
reabsorption
