FINAL Flashcards
1
Q
what does vertebrate translate to
A
animal with metameric skeletal elements supporting a dorsal hollow nerve cord
2
Q
what does anatomy translate to
A
anatomia, structure, morphology
3
Q
what is metamerism
A
repeating units
4
Q
what is one flaw in the word vertebrate
A
hagfish dont have vertebrae
5
Q
what does anatomia translate to
A
cutting up or dissection
6
Q
what is interspecific
A
between species
7
Q
what is intraspecific
A
within species
8
Q
give an example of interspecific
A
locomotion and bipedalism of humans versus gorillas
9
Q
give an example of intraspecific
A
the different kinds of vertebrae in a human
10
Q
what is the inominate bone
A
ilium + ischium + pubis
11
Q
what are the three subphyla of the chordates
A
cephalochordata, urochordata, vertebrata
12
Q
what is found within the urochordata
A
tunicates (sea squirts)
13
Q
what is found within the cephalochordata
A
amphioxious (lancelets)
14
Q
a vertebrate is a deuterostome, what does this mean
A
it refers to the anus being formed first from the blastopore during development
15
Q
what is an example of a hemichordate
A
acord worm
16
Q
what is osteology
A
the study of bones
17
Q
what is a craniate
A
an organism that possesses a cranium (bone or cartilage)
18
Q
what are the three classes in subphylum urochordata
A
ascidiacea, larvaceae, thaliaceae
19
Q
what subphylum has their notochord only in the tail
A
urochordates
20
Q
what subphylum has notocord in head and tail
A
cephalochordates
21
Q
what are the 5 chordate features
A
notochord, dorsal hollow nerve chord, pharyngeal openings, post anal tail, endostyle
22
Q
what is a notochord
A
endoskeletal structure
23
Q
what is the dorsal hollow nerve chord
A
main nerve chord of the body, anteriorily forms the brain
24
Q
what is the function of the post anal tail
A
generally used for locomotion or balance
25
what is the function of the endostyle
it acts as a food trap in some organisms (thyroid in some)
26
what does deuterostome translate to
secondary mouth
27
what are the deuterostomes
chordates, echinoderms, hemichordates
28
how is short term ATP synthesis done in deuterostomes
phosphocreatine
29
how is short term ATP synthesis done in non-deuterostomes
phosphoargine
30
whats the difference between phosphocreatine and phosphoargine
same function, different molecule
31
why would an organism use phosphocreatine or phosphoargine
gives energy faster than anaerobic respiration
32
what was the first theory of chordate origins and who did it come from
annelid-arthropod
dorsal ventral inversion
1822 geoffroy st. hillaire
33
what was the second theory of chordate origins and did it come from
auricularian hypothesis
chordates arise from echinoderm larvae and tunicate larvae
1928 Garstang
34
what is the current theory of chordate origins
earliest chordates came from cephanochordates which probably came from hemichordates
35
give an example of species that would fit into the current theory of chordate origins
acorn worm --> lancelet --> cat
36
what is an auricularian in short
type of deuterostome larvae that is a dipleureae (comes from sea cucumbers)
37
why was st hillaire's chordate origins theory proven wrong
convergent evolution
38
what is histology
the study of tissues
39
what is a tissue
a group of similar cells performing a common function
40
what are the ways cells can be performing a common function
appearance, morphology, embryonic
41
what is a cell in relation to histology
fundamental living elements
42
what is the matrix in relation to histology
acellular, non-living components surrounding the cells (goop between the cells)
43
what are the four primary tissue types
epithelia, connective tissue, muscle, nervous tissue
44
what is epithelial tissue
the tissue that lines organs (inner most and outermost tissue)
45
describe epithelial tissue
absorbent, secretory, or protective
46
how are epithelial cell tissues classified
cell shape, stratification
47
what is the difference between apical and basal epithelial tissues
apical is top or surface cells, basal is bottom cells or inner cells where other cells adhere to
48
what is the density of epithelial cells
high cell density, little matrix
49
what does it mean that a tissue is stratified
it has layers
50
what are the three types of epithelial cells
squamos, cuboidal, columnar
51
where can you find squamos cells (epithelial tissue)
kidney, lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels
52
what is the function of cuboidal epithelium
secretion and absorption
53
where can cuboidal epithelia cells be found
kidney tubules, ducts, secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface
54
what is a pseudocolumnar epithelium
varying lengths of epithelial cells make it look like theres layers
55
what are connective tissues
lots of matrix (bone and cartilage)
56
how do epithelial cells adhere to basal membrane
by proteins
57
what do echinoderm larvae look like
bilaterally symmetrical, 2 bands cilia, complete gut
58
give example of auricularian theory
echinoderm to hemichordate to chordate
59
what are the periods in the paleozoic era
cambrian, ordovician, silurian, devonian, carboniferous, permian (can older students develop crappy personalities)
60
what are the periods in the mesozoic era
triassic, jurassic, cretaceous
61
when was the age of fishes
silurian, devonian, carboniferous, permian
62
what MYA was paleozoic era
575-230
63
what MYA was mesozoic era
230-65
64
how many MYA was pikaia
530
65
when did the gnathosomes appear
ordovician
66
when did amphibians appear
devonian
67
when did reptiles appear
carboniferous
68
when did therapsids appear
permian
69
when did mammals and dinosaurs appear
triassic
70
what were the ostracoderms
early agnathan fishes with dermal bone
71
what are the oldest bones found in fossil records
dermal bone
72
what are examples of dermal bone in modern day
turtle shells, fish scales
73
what is paedomorphosis
retention of juvenile characteristics in adults
74
what was myllokunmingia
lower cambrian craniate
75
what was haikouichthys
lower cambrian vertebrate
76
what are the 10 characteristics of a vertebrate
5 of chordate, integument with dermis and epidermis, complete digestive system, advanced circulatory system, excretory system, endocrine system
77
where is the vertebrate digestive system in relation to the spinal column
digestive system is ventral in relation to spinal column
78
what is the endocrine system
series of ductless glands with secretory products (hormones) released directly into the blood
79
why is it difficult to identify notochord cells
they look like adipose cells
80
what is the notochord replaced by in most vertebrates
usually replaced by vertebrae
81
what does the dorsal hollow nerve chord usually contain
usually has an anterior cranial expansion
82
what kind of expansion is a traditional brain
tripartite meaning three bulbs of expansion on the anterior end of the dorsal hollow nerve chord
83
what is typical of most vertebrates to do with their "brain"
encase it with a cranium (bone or cartilage)
84
what on the blastopore forms the notochord
the blastoporal lip
85
who experimented with putting two blastoporal lips on the same blastopore
spemann
86
what classes comprise the agnathans
ostracoderms, pteraspidomorphi, conodonita, myxinoidea, pteromyzontida
87
what does agnathan mean
absence of jaw (jawless fishes)
88
what is found in class chondrictes
cartilagenous fishes (sharks skates rays)
89
what is found in acanthodii
spiny fishes
90
what is found in actinopterygii
ray finned fishes
91
what is found in sarcopterygii
fleshy finned fishes
92
which portion of the skeleton is oldest
axial
93
what portion of the skelton is newest
appendicular
94
how many planes of sectioning are there to bilaterally symmetrical organisms
3 planes of symmetry
95
what are the three distinct origins of the mammalian skull
splanchnocranium, chrondrocranium, dermatocranium
96
which region of the skull is oldest
splanchnocranium
97
what is the splanchnocranium associated with
the pharynx
98
what is the chrondrocranium associated with
surrounds the bottom and the sides of the brain
99
what is the dermatocranium associated with
the top of the brain box
100
what is a demifacet
dent in thoracic ribs where rib touches
101
what is the first vertebrae
C1 is the atlas (holds up cranium)
102
what is the second vertebrae
C2 is the axis
103
what classes are in the teleostomi
acanthodii, actinopterygii, sarcopterygii
104
what class of fishes did mammals evolve from
sarcopterygii
105
if you are not an amniote then what are you
if not amniote then anamniote
106
what are the anamniotes
fishes and amphibians
107
what are the amniotes
birds, mammals, reptiles
108
what does it mean that youre an amniote
you dont have to deposit your eggs in water (can create own water in an egg)
109
bone and cartilage are very similar but primarily differ in what
they differ in their matrix
110
what are the three types of cartilage
fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage, hyaline cartilage
111
what are the two kinds of bone
spongy bone, compact bone
112
what are the caudata
salamanders
113
adipose cells are filled with fat, notochord cells are filled with what
filled with water
114
what does it mean to be a vacuoled cell
most of the cell is occupied by something else (ex. adipose and notochord)
115
with vacuoled cells there is usually a sheath covering the mass of cells. what is this sheath made of
collagen
116
what are the disks between vertebrae
annulus of fibrocartilage with nucleus pulpous in between
117
where can notochord cells be found in adult mammals
in the nucleous pulpous of the vertebral disks
118
what can mesenchyme produce
fibroblast, chondroblast, osteoblast, hematopoetic stem cell
119
what do fibroblasts produce
connective tissues (fat, skin)
120
what do chondroblasts produce
cartilage
121
what do osteoblasts form
bone
122
what do hematopoetic stem cells produce
blood
123
what is mesenchyme
embryonic tissue made of migrating cells thats not found in sheets, but found in blobs (pleuripotent cells (stem))
124
what does blast mean
forming
125
what is matrix composed of
collagen, elastic fibres, proteoglycans
126
what are proteoglycans
core protein with link proteins with glycosaminoglycans (looks like test tube cleaning brush)
127
what are the 6 types of glycosaminoglycans (GAG's)
hyaluronate, chondroitin sulfate, heparin sulfate, heparin, dermatan sulfate, keratin sulfate
128
are GAG's hydrophilic or hydrophobic
hydrophilic
129
Where is hyaluronate found (GAG)
synovial fluid, vitreous humour, ECM of loose connective tissue, large polymers, shock absorbing
130
where is chondroitin sulfate found (GAG)
cartilage, bone, heart valves
131
what is the most abundant of the GAG's
chondroitin sulfate
132
where is heparan sulfate found (GAG)
basement membranes, components of cell surfaces
133
where is heparin found (GAG)
intracellular granules of mast cells, line arteries of lungs liver and skin
134
where is dermatan sulfate found (GAG)
skin, blood vessels, heart valves
135
where is keratin sulfate found (GAG)
cornea, bone, cartilage (makes things waterproof)
136
in general how is cartilage formed
mesenchyme to chondroblast then GAGs surround chondroblast then GAGs surrounded by a lacuna shell. once surrounded by lacuna its cartilage
137
whats a place you could find elastic cartilage
ears
138
whats the function of elastic cartilage
maintains shape of structure while allowing great flexibility (more elastic fibres in matrix)
139
where can fibrocartilage be found
intervertebral joints, pubic symphyses, discs of knee joints
140
whats the function of fibrocartilage
tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock
141
what is the predominant fiber in fibrocartilage matrix
thick collagen fibers
142
where can hyaline cartilage be found
embryonic skeleton, covers ends of long bones, costal cartilage on ribs, cartilage of nose, trachea, larynx
143
whats the function of hyaline cartilage
supports and reinforces, resilient cushioning, resists comprehensive stress
144
what is osseous tissue
bone
145
what is compact bone
cortical bone thats outside bone (flat bone)
146
what is spongy bone
cancelous, inside spongy bone (network of osseous tissue)
147
what is osteogenesis
the formation of bone
148
what are the two types of osteogenesis
intramembranous
| cartilage replacement
149
what is osteogenesis in the form of intramembranous bone formation
happens to flat bone of skull and clavicles, happens within fibrous connective membrane
150
what is osteogenesis in the form of cartilage replacement bone formation
happens in most skeletal elements, can be perichondral or endochondral
151
what is an ossification center
the site of bone formation
152
what engages osteogenesis
osteoblasts
153
what removes existing bone
osteoclasts
154
what maintains fully formed bone
osteocytes
155
in what kind of development is the first formative bone nonlamellar
endochondral and intramembranous
156
what is another name for nonlamellar bone
immature bone or woven bone
157
what is nonlamellar bone
lots of cells interspersed amongst irregularly strewn bundles of collagen
158
what is perichondral
on the outside
159
what is endochondral
on the innermost
160
what is lamellar bone
mature bone
161
what does osteogenesis start with
local aggregations of loosel arranged mesenchymal cells
162
in what kind of osteogenesis formation is cartilage an intermediate
endochondral
163
when someone stops growing what has happened
their epiphysial plates have closed
164
what are the three regions have a bone
epiphysis, metaphysis, diaphysis
165
what is another name for the metaphysis
epiphyseal plate
166
what is the first step of bone formation from endochronral
loose cellections of mesenchymal cells consense to form hyaline cartilage
167
what is the second step of bone formation in endochondral
bone collar forms in region of diaphysis
168
what deposits the bone collar
cells on inner surface of diaphysis become osteoblasts and deposit the collar
169
what is happening in the bone at the same time as the formation of the bone collar
inorganic calcium salts accumulate in the matrix to calcify cartilage in the core of the diaphysis
170
what is the function of calcium in bone formation
calcify cartilage, seal off chondrocytes
171
what is the function of sealing off chrondrocytes in bone formation
seal them off so they die so vasculature can invade
172
when is the primary center of ossification established
when osteoblasts appear in the core of the bone
173
what happens in the center of ossification
old bits of calcified cartilage bone become overlaid by new bone
174
what are trabeculae
transitional composites of new bone
175
when are trabeculae considered bone spiracles
when an ossified matrix predominates
176
what do osteoclasts signal in osteogenesis
signals active nature of bone remodeling through matrix deposition and removal
177
what is the difference between osteoblast and osteoclast
blast deposits, clast removes
178
where is the active area of cartilage growth, calcification, cartilage removal, and new bone deposition
epiphyseal plates
179
what do chondrocytes do in response to approaching ossification
chondrocytes proliferate and hypertrophy as surrounding matrix calcifies
180
what lengthens bone
proliferation of cartilage in the epiphyses
181
what contributes to an increase in bone girth
continued depositon of bone under diaphyseal periosteum
182
why can fish grow larger even if reached sexual maturity
only bird and mammals stop growing when they reach adult and sexual maturity
183
what is the basic steps of osteogenesis
cartilage calcifies, blood vessels invade epiphyses, osteoblasts appear, new bone deposited
184
when do secondary centers of ossification appear in humans
at 2-3 years of age
185
when does the zone of ossification take over cartilage proliferation
at or shortly after mammals reach sexual maturity
186
what are the 5 chordate characteristics that all vertebrates have
notochord, pharyngeal openings, post anal tail, endostyle, dorsal hollow nerve cord
187
what are the innovations of chordates that are characteristic to vertebrates
cranium and vertebrae
188
what are vertebrae
series of separate bones or cartilage blocks firmly joined together as a back bone that defines the major axis of the body
189
what are between vertebrae
intervertebral disks
190
what are the 3 basic parts to a vertebra
centrum, neural arch, hemal arch
191
what structural element did early vertebrates rely o
has vertebrae but still mainly relied on the notochord
192
where does the notochord remain in advanced vertebrates
in the nucleous pulpous in the intervertebral disks
193
what is the function of a cranium
supports sensory organs in the head and encases or partially encases the brain
194
what does cephalization mean
anterior clustering of specialized sensory organs
195
what are the three parts of the brain
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
196
what two kinds of cells give rise to most sensory organs in the head and are the source of most adult structures that distinuish vertebrates from chordates
neural crest cells, epidermal placodes
197
in what habitat are the earliest vertebrates found
marine waters
198
what are the three stages of vertebrate evolution
prevertebrates, agnathans, gnathostomes
199
what is a prevertebrate
suspension feeding organism that probably resembled amphioxious without burrowing habits
200
how did agnathans feed
use of a muscular pump to produce food bearing water current
201
where did the prevertebrates arise from
arose within protochordates
202
what two mechanical changes caused the shift from prevertebrate to vertebrate
pharynx developed encircling band of muscles, strong and springy cartilage replaced collagen in pharyngeal bars (this formed the muscular pump)
203
what removed the limits to size in early vertebrates
the loss of cilliary pump and the dominance of muscular pump
204
what did the muscular pump of prevertebrates allow for
allowed for larger body size, more complex feeding, addition of gills instead of pharyngeal openings
205
what are gills
complex, folded respiratory organs on pharyngeal pouches whose folds contain blood capillary beds capable of gas exchange
206
what are the folds of gills called
lamellae
207
what did the addition of gills allow for in vertebrates
allowed for increased respiratory demands made by organism due to increased activity
208
how did early vertebrates arise to the agnathan stage
appearance of muscular pharyngeal pump
209
what are the 5 agnathan groups
conodonts, pteraspidomorphi, ostracoderms, myxini, pteromyzontida
210
what kind of feeding did early gnathostomes posses
raptiorial and suction feeding
211
what removed size restriction of prey for gnathistomes
addition of jaws
212
if youre not a fish youre a ____
tetrapod
213
what are amniotes
vertebrates that wrap their embryos in an amnion
214
who are the anamniotes
fishes and amphibians
215
what are jaws derived from
phyrengeal arches
216
were ostracoderms vertebrates
no, notochord instead of vertebrae
217
ostracoderms were not considered craniates, why
they had a dermal bone head shield but not a chondral cranium
218
what do odontoblasts do
form dentin and enamel (mesenchymal derivatives)
219
how does dermal bone vary most significantly from other bone types
dermal bone has an enamel surface
220
what is the issue with having bone made of enamel and dentin
no blood vessels so its not reparable
221
what are the extant agnathans
hagfish and lampreys (myxini and pteryomyzontida)
222
what kind of larvae do lampreys have
ammocoete (kind of like amphioxious)
223
what kind of teeth do lampreys have
keratinized teeth (like finger nails)
224
lampreys and hagfish do not have arcualia when embryonic, what are arcualia
theyre embryonic structures that form vertebrae
225
whats the ecological difference between hagfish and lampreys
lampreys are ectoparasites
226
what kind of feeding do hagfish have
carrion feeding
227
what is carrion feeding
eat dead stuff
228
how many semicircular canals do lampreys have
2
229
how many semicircular canals do hagfish have
1
230
hagfish are unique in that they are isoosmotic, what is isoosmotic
organisms cells are in balance with the salt of the ocean
231
what organism displays knotting feeding when feeding
hagfish
232
what are the cyclostomes
hagfish and lamprey because they have circular mouths
233
where does the fossil data for hagfish and lampreys reach to
late devonian
234
all agnathans lack ____ and possess____
lack bone and possess a single nostril
235
what is the function of hagfish knotting
provides force to tear off food from a larger body
236
hagfish are hermaphrodites but they are not practicing hermaphrodites, what does this mean
they have both sets of gonads but only use one set, must have another hagfish present to reproduce
237
what kind of agnathan has vertebrae
some hagfish have embryonic vertebrae
238
what does it mean for water movement in the body of the hagfish that it is isoosmotic
no net flow o water in or out of the body (doesnt have to drink or pee)
239
what was most likely the direct ancestor to hagfish
invertebrates
240
how does a lamprey stay in place in moving water
grasps rock in mouth and holds it
241
what kind of feeding does the lamprey larva show
suspension feeding
242
what kind of fins do lamprey have
medial fins (paired fins and limbs absent)
243
when do the earliest vertebrates come from
early cambrian of China
244
what does the word conodont mean
cone teeth
245
what kind of feeding did conodonts have
selected and fed on larger food particles (prey)
246
when were ostracoderms most dominant
very late cambrian, silurian, early devonian
247
what was the first agnathan group to possess paired appendages
ostracoderms
248
what was the first vertebrate to have an intricate lateral line system
ostracoderms
249
what was the first vertebrate to have bone
ostracoderms
250
how large were most ostracoderms
minnow sized
251
what was the ostracoderm head shield
large bony plates of the head that were fused into a shield
252
what is the endoskeleton of ostracoderms made of
most fossils suggest cartilagenous endoskeletons
253
what is of interest in the fins of ostracoderms
paired muscular fins observed in the same position and vasculature as gnathostomes
254
what kind of falttening did ostracoderms have
dorsoventral
255
what are the three ostracoderm clades
pteraspidomorphs, osteostracans, anapsids
256
when do pteraspidomorphi ostracoderms appear
ordovician to late devonian
257
how many semicircular canals do pteraspidomorphi of the ostracoderms have
possess 2 semicircular canals
258
how many nares did pteraspidomorphi ostracoderms have
2
259
what did pteraspidomorphi never have and what did they sometimes have
sometimes had lateral and dorsal spines, and never has paired fins
260
ostracoderms body shapes were either fusiform or flattened, what does fusiform mean
spindle shaped
261
what was a popular tail morphology within the ostracoderms
hypocercal tail (bottom lobe longer than upper lobe)
262
what does the tail morphology of ostracoderms suggest
suggests ostracoderms did more open water swimming
263
what are the two early groups of jawed fishes
placoderms and acanthodii
264
when did acanthodii first appear
early sillurian
265
when did placoderms first appear
early sillurian
266
what was the early function of jaws
grasp, bite, crush prey (allowed for capturing of larger prey)
267
early gnathostomes has two types of paired fins, what were these fin types
pectoral and pelvic fins
268
where were the pectoral fins located on early gnathostomes
anterior
269
where were the pelvic fins located on early gnathostomes
posteriorly
270
what did paired fins allow for
stability and control
271
gnathostomes produced two major extant vertebrate groups, what are these two groups
chondrictes, teleostomi
272
what is within the chondrictes
sharks, skates, rays
273
what is within the teleostomi
bony fishes
274
when do placoderms date from
early silurian, flourished in devonian, gone in early carboniferous
275
what is different about the bone in ostracoderms versus placoderms
placoderms dont have dentin in their dermal bone
276
what distinguishes placoderms as a clade
bony thorax articulated with a bony head shield
277
what was the first fish to have internal bone
placoderms had the first internal bone (neural and hemal arches were ossified)
278
what was the size range for placoderms
hand sized to 30 feet long
279
what was probably the lifestyle of placoderms
benthic bottom feeders marine and freshwater
280
what are pelvic claspers
pelvic fins associated with internal fertilization (essentially penises)
281
placoderms were vivaparous, what does vivaparous mean
internal fertilization and give birth to live young
282
what group has the distinction of being the only major group of vertebrates to become entirely extinct without descendents
placoderms
283
what are within the elasmobranchs
(of chondrictes) its the sharks and the rays
284
what is within the holocephalans of chondrictes
chimearas (ratfish)
285
what is notable about the teeth of members in chondrictes
the teeth have serial replacement
286
what kind of scales do chondrictes have
placoid
287
when did chondrictes arise
early devonian
288
what kind of tail did placoderms have
heterocercal
289
why is it important to note the tail type of placoderms
heterocercal tail meant probably didnt have a swim bladder
290
what arch becomes the upper jaw
epibranchial cartilage of the first arch becomes the palatoquadrate cartilage of the upper jaw
291
what arch becomes the lower jaw
ceratobranchial cartilage of the first arch became mandibular cartilage (mekels)
292
what was the purpose of the second arch in the formation of jaws
in mammals it became hyoid arches, in other vertebrates it holds the first arch in place
293
if an organism retains the rest of its arches, what does it use them for
uses them to keep the cavity open and allows for gills
294
sharks have a spiracle on their head, what is this remenant of
the second pharyngeal opening moving upward creating a non functioning spiracle
295
chondrictes have sleek fusiform bodies, what does this suggest for function
suggests that they are/were active swimmers
296
what helps to keep chondrictes afloat
heterocercal tail and large liver filled with bouyant oils
297
what kind of birthing do chondrictes have
some have live birth, some have eggs
298
what is the functional support of most chondrictes
cartilagenous vertebrae
299
how many pharyngeal arches are in verts
7
300
how many pharyngeal openings are in verts
8
301
what group do rays belong to
batoidea
302
when does the ray fossils begin
early jurassic
303
what is the function of a spiracle in rays
primary way rays bring water into the body
304
what is the difference between skates and rays
skates have a rostum, rays dont
305
what group do the rays belong to
rajidae
306
what kind of birthing do skates and rays have
vivapary (born live but in a "purse"
307
what makes the ratfish tail different from the other chondrictes
it is not heterocercal, it is pointed
308
how does the ratfish propel itself through water
large pectoral fins
309
when do ratfish appear in fossil record
late devonian
310
how do jaws of ratfish differ from sharks
upper jaw of ratfish fused to braincase
311
how do ratfish gills differ from sharks
ratfish have an operculum, sharks dont
312
how do ratfish breed
pelvic claspers and cephalic clasper (on head)
313
what groups are in the teleostomes
acanthodii, osteichthyes
314
what does the word acanthodii mean
spiny sharks
315
what kind of tail do acanthodii have
heterocercal
316
what is the characteristic feature of acanthodii
fins preceded by spines
317
when do acanthodii live
early silurian to late ordovician
318
what water types did acanthondii occupy
marine and freshwater
319
what was the major mechanical support for acanthodians
ossified vertebral column with persistant notochord
320
where did the acanthodii have dermal bone
has some dermal bone in the head but it was not composited into a head shield
321
what was the first group to have a bony operculum
acanthodii had some members with bony operculum
322
why are acanthodii probably more related to sharks than bony fishes
sharks and acanthodii both have subterminal mouth below the nose (bony fish dont have this)
323
what kind of mouth do bony fish have
terminal mouth
324
most living vertebrates are in what group
osteichthyes
325
what group do bony fishes belong to
osteichthyes
326
when do bony fishes appear
late silurian
327
what characterizes osteichthyes
majority of the internal skeleton is made of bone
328
what ostheicythes have a mostly cartilage skeleton
sturgeons, paddlefish, lungish,
329
what organ do bony fishes have to support bouyancy
lepidotrichia
330
what are lepidotrichia
slender bony rods or rays providing fan like internal support to the fins
331
what are the two groups in the bony fishes
actinopterygeans, sarcopterigians
332
what is the dominant group within the bony fishes
actinopterygeans
333
what group in the bony fishes gave rise to the tetrapods
sarcopterygeans
334
what does the word neopterygii mean
new fishes (older new fish)
335
what kind of tail is found in the neopterygii
homocercal tail
336
what does the world teleostean mean
newer new fishes
337
what fish are within the teleostean
most fish
338
what is a major difference in the fins of neopterygian and teleostean fishes
neo have pelvic fins pushed way back, teleo have pelvic fins pushed under the pectoral fins
339
what are the two kinds of swim bladders
physo and physcli
340
what is the primitive swim bladder
physo
341
what is the advanced swim bladder
physcli
342
what happens in physo swim bladder
swim bladder is connected to the stomach
343
what happens in physcli swim bladder
swim bladder not connected to stomach, own gas gland that uses dissolved gasses to fill the bladder
344
what kind of tails do sarcopterygii have
diphycercal tails
345
what groups are within the sarcopterygii
dipnoi (lungfish), coelocanth, rhipidistia
346
what genus does coealocanths belong to
latimeria
347
what does the word actinopterygii mean
ray finned fishes
348
what are the palaenoisciformes of the actinopterygii
primitive ray finned fishes
349
what kind of scales do bichir have
rhomboidal ganoid scales
350
when did neopterygeans arise
early mesozoic
351
when did teleost fishes appear
late triassic
352
where did tetrapod limbs evolve from
sarcopterygean fins
353
sarcopterygians have choanae, what are choanea
extrernal nares open into the mouth through holes called choanea
354
what kind of scales so sarcopterygians have
cosmoid scales
355
when did coelocanths first appear
middle devonian
356
what is weird about the coelocanth swim bladder
its filled with fat
357
when did dipnoi first arise
(lungfish) first arose in devonian
358
when do rhipidistians date to
early devonian to permian
359
early devonian to permian
yes
360
what kind of teeth are found in the rhipidistians
labrynthodont teeth
361
why are rhipidisteans so important
theyre the direct ancestors to tetrapods
362
when did tetrapods step onto land
late paleozoic
363
what is tetrapoda formally characterized by
presence of a chiridium
364
what is a chiridium
muscular limb with joints and digits
365
what were the labrynthodonts
transition animals between rhipidisteans and tetrapods (ancient amphibians)
366
what is the best studied rhipidistean
eusthenopteron
367
the cleithrum of fishes turns into what on humans
turns into the spine of the scapula
368
acanthostega was an ancient amphibian with how many phalanges
8
369
what did tiktaalik look like
amphibian skull, fish body
370
whats the order of transition species (oldest to newest)
acanthostega, tiktaalik, ichthyostega, limnoscelis, labryinthodonts
371
what did ichthyostega look like
had a forelimb and a hing limb (7 digits)
372
how many digits did limnoscelis have
5
373
what is an eft
midpoint in the life cycle of newts where they are red and terrestrial
374
what subclass are the modern amphibians within
lissamphibia
375
what kind of organisms are in the caudata
those with a tail
376
what kind of organisms are in the salientia
those without a tail
377
what kind of organisms are in the apoda
those without feet
378
what does paedomorphic mean
adult retining a juvenile feature
379
what kinds of glands are in the skin of amphibians
mucous and poison glands
380
amphibians can have physiologically active cromatophores, what do these do
produce colour
381
amphibians have a urostyle, what is a urostyle
fusion of the vertebrae
382
how many chambers are in an amphibian heart
3
383
when is there a lateral line on amphibians
only in juvenile stages, lost in adulthood
384
when did stapes first appear
in early labrynthodonts
385
what kind of fertilization was most likely in labrynthodonts
external with eggs laid in water
386
what kind of water was most common for labrynthodonts to frequent
freshwater
387
when did lissamphibia arise
jurassic
388
what is a lateral line organ
gives feedback on how water is moving (kinda like an inner ear)
389
what is prismatic cartilage
calcium phosphate shell surrounding cartilage
390
what kind of scales do sharks have
placoid scales
391
whats another term for poison glands in amphibians
granular skin glands
392
living amphibians have what kind of teeth
pedicellate
393
what is the only lissamphibian to have internal fertilization
caecilians
394
what are the two major amniote groups
sauropsida and synapsida
395
what is within the sauopsids
birds, dinosaurs, reptiles
396
how are saurapsid and synapsid skulls classified
based on the temporal bone of the skull
397
what are the skull types
anapsid, diapsid, synapsid
398
what differentiates suarapsids and synapsids from amphibians
sacrum attaches the hind limbs to the spinal chord
399
what is the sacrum
fusion of 5 vertebrae
400
what are the 5 key characteristics of amniotes
sacral vertebrae, cornified epidermal scales, advanced kidney, deeper skull, cleidoic egg
401
what are cornified epidermal scales
lizard scales, bird leg scales (not the same thing as fish scales)
402
what kind of advanced kidney is characteristic of vertebrates
metanepharous kidney
403
why is a metanepharoud kidney needed for advanced vertebrates
organism needs to be stingy with water and produce very concentrated urine
404
what are the 4 extra embryonic membranes of the cleoidic egg
amnion, yolk sac, alantois, choreon
405
what are the stem amniotes
cotylosaurs
406
what is the mnenomic device for the 12 cranial nerves
oh oh oh to touch and feel a girls vagina ah heaven
407
what are the 12 cranial nerves
olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abduceans, facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal
408
what are the three branches of the trigeminal nerve
ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular
409
where are the trochlear nerves found
superior oblique muscles
410
where is the absuceans nerve found
lateral rectus
411
where is the glossopharyngeal nerve found
tongue and pharynx
412
where is the accessory nerve found
skeletal muscle
413
where is the hypoglassal nerve found
below the tongue
414
what is the outermost layer of an amniote
choreon
415
what is the eurypsid skull derived from
has one temporal fostra, derived from diapsid
416
what is an organism with a diapsid skull
tuatara, lizards, birds
417
what is an animal with an anapsid skull
turtles
418
what is an animal with a synapsid skull
mammals
419
what are the two types of jaw joints (articulations)
quadrate-artricular and temporal-mandibular
420
what is endothermy
physiological adaptation where animal maintains internal temperature
421
what animals are endotherms
birds and mammals
422
why dont more organisms use endothermy
its calorifically expensive
423
what is the major benefit of endothermy
allows independence in climates regardless of temperature or time of day
424
what is a synapsid skull
single pair temporal openings
425
what is a diapsid skull
two pairs of temporal openings
426
what kinds of skulls did dinosaurs have
diapsid skulls
427
what is the most likley sister group to the amniotes
diadectomorphs
428
when did diadectomorphs evolve
in late carboniferous with the lissamphibia
429
what does cotylosaur mean
stem reptiles
430
mesosaurs belong to what group
sauropsids
431
whatis the earliest evidence for continental drift
mesosaurs only found in south american and africa
432
to what group do reptilia belong
saurapsids
433
what is found in the parareptilia
turtles, and fossils
434
what is found in lepidosaurs
fossils, snakes, smae lizards
435
what is in archosaurmorpha
dinosaurs and birds
436
what arose from eureptilia
lepidosaurs, archosaurs, and ichthyterygia
437
what are the squamates
snakes, lizards
438
what do archosaurs lead to the first appearance of
bipedalism
439
what is an advantage to having a diapsid skull
elongation of trigeminal nerves allowing for a stronger bite
440
what kind og jaw joint do lizards have
articular-quadrate
441
what is the amniote columella synomenous with in reptiles
stapes
442
what animals have anapsid skulls
mesosaurs, cotylosaurs, turtles
443
what cranial nerve drives mastication
trigeminal nerve
444
what are amphibaenians
legless lizards
445
what does fossorial mean
lives underground (legless lizards do this)
446
what does pneumatized mean
hollow
447
what kinds of bones do birds have
pneumatized
448
what vertebrates lack teeth entirely
birds and turtles
449
birds have a pygostyle, what is a pygostyle
fusion of caudal vertebrae
450
birds have a synsacrum, what is synsacrum
sacrum is fused to the ribs and thoracic vertebrae in a cage like structure
451
what kind of sternum do birds have
keeled sternum
452
what is a keeled sternum
sternum with a plate sticking out, attaches pectoral muscles to humerous to aid in flying
453
are feathers diagnostic of birds
no, because they were found in dinosaurs as well
454
what is considered the first bird
archaeopteryx
455
what do birds outnumber
all vertebrates except for fish
456
what verts can fly
birds, bats, pterosaurs
457
what are the three major groups of the synapsids
pelycosaurs, therapsids, mammals
458
what is a synapsid
amniote with one temporal fenestrae
459
when did amniotes transition from ectotherm to endotherm
within the synapsids
460
what did therapsids evolve from
pelycosaurs
461
how many digits did therapsids have
5, and they were quadripeds
462
when did mammals first arise
late triassic
463
what did the first mammals look like
small and shrew like
464
what kind of dentition do mammals have
heterodont dentition
465
what is a mammal
endothermic furry animal nourished from birth by milk
466
what is pelage
mammal coat of hair
467
what is the proper name for whiskers
sensory vibrissae
468
how many ear bones do mammals have
3
469
what are mammals (evolutionarily)
late triassic therapsids
470
what does heterodont mean
more than one kind of tooth (incisors, molars)
471
what are the most ancient types of mammals
monotremes
472
what is found in monotremes
platypus, echidna
473
what distinguishes eutherian mammals from monotremous mammals
all eutherians have placentas
474
what is the surface of skin
epidermis
475
what is the middle of the skin
basal membrane
476
what is the bottom layer of skin
dermis
477
what does the dermis devlop from
mesoderm and mesenchyme
478
what is epidermis derived from
ectoderm
479
what is the superficial fascia (hypodermis)
between skin and muscle
480
how much body weight does skin make up
about 15 percent
481
what does the epidermis produce
hair, feathers, claws, nails, horns, beaks, (some) scales
482
what are the three layers of epidermis
periderm, stratum basale, basal lamina
483
what makes up integument
epidermis and dermis separated by basal membrane
484
dermis is composed of fibrous connective tissue made up of mostly
collagen
485
what is a ply
a woven layer of collagen fibers
486
what produces moisture of skin
epidermis makes mucous to moisten skin
487
how to land vertebrates keep epidermis moist
by encasing epidermis in keratin or cornifications
488
what is the cornified or keratin layer of epidermis in land verts called
stratum corneum
489
how does stratum corneum help prevent water loss
its a layer of keratinized or cornified dead cells. because theyre nonliving they help waterproof
490
what does alpha keratin do
kills and flattens cells for waterproofing
491
where is alpha keratin abundant
hair and nails
492
what does beta keratin do
forms epidermal scales
493
where is beta keratin found
lizard skin and bird feathers
494
what other kinds of cells are found in skin
keratinocytes, langerhorn cells, merkel cells and melanocytes
495
what do keratinocytes do
phagocytize cells
496
what do melanocytes do
make themselves darker to protect from sun
497
what do langerhans cells do
immune system cells in the skin
498
what do merkel cells do
caps that sit on neurons that penetrate into epidermis
499
mobile tongue first develops in ____
tetrapods
500
what does tongue attach to
hyoid apparatus
501
what are taste buds
sensory organs responsive to chemicals entering mouth
502
what does the vomeronasal organ detect
smells pharamones
503
what are pharamones
social chemicals of communication (often used in mating)
504
what is the function of filiform papillae on tongue
help to rasp flesh from bones
505
what is lingual feeding
shooting out tongue to stick to prey and eat it
506
what is intraoral transport
moving food from tongue to buccal cavity
507
what are the two major controlsystems in the body
nervous and endocrine
508
what are the endocrine glands function
produce hormones (chemical messengers)
509
how are hormones carried
through blood
510
where is hair found
thin skin
511
what is major differences between thin and thick skin
thin skin has thinner epidermis, thin dermis is looser, thin has hair.
512
what are the glands of the dermis
subaceous gland, 'apocrine' sweat gland, ecrine sweat gland
513
what does the subaceous gland do
secretes sebum
514
what is the function of sebum
as hair grows its coated with sebum (holocrine secretion)
515
what is the function of the ecrine sweat gland
coiled gland that secretes sweat via merocrine secretion
516
how does sweat cool the body
evaporation of sweat from the body cools it
517
what is the function of the 'apocrine sweat gland'
secretes sweat onto hair in pubic region and armpits (merocrine functions)
518
what is a key difference between ecrine and apocrine sweat glands
apocrine preserves fragrance of the hairs
519
what are two other glands that can, but not always, be found in the dermis
ceruminous gland, scent glands
520
what is the function of ceruminous glands
wax glands of the ears
521
what is the function of the arrector pilus found in the dermis
smooth muscle that pulls on hairs allowing them to stand up
522
what are some other things that can be found in the thin skin
adipose, blood vessels, nerve endings
523
what are two types of nerves that can be found in the skin
free nerves, and encapsulated nerves
524
what is a free nerve
not encapsulated
525
what are some examples of free nerves
noseceptors, temperature receptors
526
what is a noseceptor
pain receptor (detects something that may damage the tissue)
527
what is a temperature receptor
measure change in temperature
528
what are the kinds of encapsulated nerves in skin
merkel disks, meissners corpuscle, pacinian corpuscle
529
what kind of receptors have merkel disks on the encapsulated nerve
touch receptors that are pressure activated
530
what kind of receptors have meissners corpuscle
touch receptors that are sensitive to light touch (many in fingertips, few in back)
531
what kind of receptors have pacinian corpuscle
touch receptors for deep touch with deep pressure on the skin
532
the quil of a feather is located where in avian integument
buried on epidermis
533
do feathers have vasculature
nope
534
the inner hollow portion of a feather has two parts, what are they, and what is the difference between the two
quil and rachis. quil is in epidermis, structurally rachis is the same but its not in the epidermis
535
what is the vane of a feather
the mass of fluff coming off the rachis
536
what is an individual fluff of the vane of a feather called
a barb
537
what is another name for a quill
calamus
538
what branches off of barbs
barbules
539
what are the 4 types of feathers
flight, down, filoplume, contour
540
what is the function of down feathers and where are they found
they are for warmth and found beneath contour feathers
541
what is avian integument characterized by
feathers, epidermal scales, preen gland
542
what is the only integument gland birds have
preen
543
what is the function of the preen gland
makes oil to coat feathers
544
when do reptiles show an outer and inner integument
when molting
545
reptiles have double layered scales, what are the two layers made of
outer is beta keratin, inner is alpha keratin
546
what is found between the two layers of reptile integument
mesos layer for waterproofing
547
what glands of reptiles have in their integument
they are largely glandless in integument
548
what animal has the same integument as the lissamphibia
reptiles
549
amphibians have a lightly cornified stratum cornum, what does this do for the animal
leaves integument light, soft, and smooth
550
what kinds of glands of amphibians have in their integument
mucous glands and poison glands
551
instead of scales what does frog integument have
chromatophores
552
how thick is fish epidermis generally
can be as thin as one or two cells thick
553
where are fish scales located
in the dermis (they are dermal bone)
554
what glands are found in fish epidermis
unicellular mucous glands
555
what does it mean that fish scales are imbrocated
the top of one covers the bottom of the next / / /
556
what are the colour bearing cells in fish integument
chromatophores
557
why can chromatophores be used to communicate in fishes
they are innervated so they can change colour/pattern
558
how many pigments can one fish chromatophore bear
only one per chromatophore cell
559
what does afferent mean in nervous system
approaching nervous system
560
what does efferent mean in nervous system
moving away from the nervous system
561
the anatomical division of the nervous system is divided into the ___ and the ___
central and peripheral
562
what is included in the central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
563
what is included in the peripheral nervous system
nodules(ganglia) and nerves
564
what is spina bifida caused by
failure of neural tube closing in first trimester
565
what is the central nervous system derived from
embryonic neural tube
566
what is the peripheral nervous system derived from embryonically
neural crest cells
567
what animals have neural crest cells
vertebrates only
568
what do neural crest cells produce
melanocytes(/chromatophores), mesenchyme, ganglia
569
what is a ganglia
a cluster of neurons
570
what is a neuron
functional cells of nervous system that are excitabe and communicatable
571
what are the three neuron types
motor (efferent), intermediate, sensory (afferent)
572
what are the two types of cells in the nervous system
neurons and neuroglial cells
573
what are some types of neuroglia cells
microglia, oligodendroglia, schwann cells, ependymal cells, astrocytes
574
what is the main difference between neurons and neuroglia
neurons recieve signal, neuroglia do not
575
what are the three types of neurons
unipolar, bipolar, multipolar
576
what are the two kinds of nerves
myelinated and unmyelinated
577
a neuroglial cells that produces myelination in pns is called what
schwann cell
578
a neuroglial cell that produces myelination in cna is called what
oligodendrocyte
579
what are nodes of ranvier
indentations between adjacent neurological cells in myelin sheath
580
how does information travel in nervous system
electrical and chemical signals
581
what are electrical signals in nervous system called
nerve impulses
582
what are chemical signals in nervous system called
graded potentials and acction potentials
583
what is a graded potential
declines in magnitude as it travels along a nerve
584
what is an action potential along a nerve fiber
all or nothing, propegates without decrement along nerve fiber
585
where are chemical signals generated
at synapses
586
what is a synapse
meeting point between two neurons
587
describe how signal tranvels from one neuron to the next
signal travels down axon of one neuron then hits a synapse to next neuron the burst of energy at the synapse triggers release of neurotransmitters in next neuron, once enough neurotransmitters accumulate, a signal is sent through the neuron and down axon to the next synapse
588
what are the somatic sensory afferent pathways
meisners corpuscles bring infomation from outside world (exoceptions)
589
what are visceral sensory afferent pathways
whats goin on inside the body-ph, bp, o2 (interoception)
590
what are the somatic motor efferent pathways
stimulate voluntary muscles
591
what are the visceral motor efferent pathways
stimulates internal involuntary-adjust bp, ph, o2
592
what is another name for the visceral motor efferent pathways (PNS to CNS)
autonomic nervous system
593
what are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system
sympathetic, parasympathetic
594
what does the sympathetic division of the autonomic system do
fight or flee, targets adrenal gland, targets pupils
595
what does the parasympathetic division of the autonomic system do
counteracts sympathetic division
596
what is the function of sensory structures
signal transduction
597
what is signal transduction
converting a stimulus into action potential by passing signal and changing its form
598
what signals can we transduce
mechanical, chemical, electromagnetic
599
what is action potential
change in electrical potential that occurs between the inside and the outside of a nerve or muscle fiber when stimulated serving the transmit signal
600
what do peripheral nerves do
serve either visceral or somatic tissues and carry sensory motor information
601
what are the two nerve types from PNS
spinal or cranial nerves
602
what is the first cranial nerve
olfactory (smell)
603
what is the second cranial nerve
optic nerve (vision)
604
what is the third cranial nerve
oculomotor nerve (superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique muscles)
605
what is the fourth cranial nerve
trochlear nerve (superior oblique eye muscles)
606
what is the fifth cranial nerve
trigeminal (ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular branches)
607
what is the sixth cranial nerve
abducens (control movement of eye (lateral rectus))
608
what is the seventh cranial never
facial nerve (sensory fibers from taste buds, muscles to face too)
609
what is the eighth cranial nerve
auditory (hearing)
610
what is the ninth cranial nevere
glossopharyngeal (to third branchial arch)
611
what is the tenth cranial nerve
vagus nerve (mouth, pharynx, and most viscera)
612
what is the 11th cranial nerve
accessory nerve (gives to some spinal muscles)
613
what is the 12th cranial nevere
hypoglossal (innervates hyoid and tongue)
614
what are memories in brain
neurotransmitters
615
where are action potentials generated
pacinian corpuscle
616
what are the three basic principles of sensory systems
all or nothing, frequency modulation, sensory adaptation
617
what is the all or nothing principle
action potential happens or it doesnt, not a small or large action potential
618
where does frequency modulation occur
pacinian corpuscle
619
what is frequency modulation
the amount of action potentials per minute codes for how much stimulation is occurring
620
what is sensory adaptation
reaction to a stimulus depending on how much previously prsent (ex. lights brighter when youve been asleep, actual brightness of light doesnt change)
621
what is a nociceptor
pain receptor
622
what are chemoreceptors
tasting and smelling receptors (take in chemical signals)
623
what is a baroreceptor
detects pressure changes
624
what is a carotid body
a cluster of chemoreceptors
625
what are simple mechanoreceptors
noceceptors, pacinian corposcles
626
what are complex mechanoreceptors
lateral line organs, inner ear
627
what animals have lateral line organ
fish, and larval amphibians
628
what nerve goes to the fish lateral line organ
vagus nerve (10)
629
what nerve goes to the inner ear in verts
8th cranial nerve (auditory)
630
what are the sensory receptors of the lateral line organ
neuromasts
631
what does the neuromast respond to
responds to water currents
632
how are hair cells of the neuromast oriented
with most sensitive axis parallel to lateral line canal
633
what is the primary role of the later line organ
navigation
634
what arises from the lateral line organ
vestibular apparatus
635
the vestibular apparatus is filled with ____ and surrounded by____
filled with endolymph and surrounded by perilymph
636
what is a neuromast composed of
hair cells, supporting cells, sensory nerve fibers
637
what is the long colium of a hair cell called
kinocilium
638
what are the shorter cilia of a hair cell called
stereocilia
639
what are masses of hair cells (neuromast) covered by
cupula (protective bubble)
640
how many semicircular canals do gnathostomes have
3
641
what are sensory receptors in semicircular canals called
cristae
642
where specifically in the semicircular canals are cristae found
ampullae at the base of each semicircular canal
643
what do semicircular canals respond to
rotation and acceleration
644
how is a change in acceleration or rotation detected
endolymph movement lags behind movement of canal itself, fluid deflects cupula, stimulates hair cells, and alters rhythmic discharge of electrical impulses to nervous system
645
what is the sensory receptor in the saculus of the semicircular canal
otolith receptor
646
how do otolith receptors respond to orientation
the otolith moves and can detect which way is up
647
what is the lagena
secondary appendage of saccule
648
what is the inner ear encased by
temporal bone
649
what is a macule
neuromast
650
what is the pars inferior used for
sound detection (primarily the lagena)
651
what is between the membranous labrynth of inner ear and the temporal bone
perilymph
652
how many semicircular canals do hagfish, ostracoderm and lamprey have
hagfish have one, lamprey and ostracoderms have 2
653
what is sound
pressure waves in the air
654
what is sound measured in
hertz (ripples in air per second)
655
how do you get action potential from sound waves
sound wave is transduced to action potential and sent rhough 8th cranial nerve to brain
656
which verts have lagena
fish
657
what is the terrestrial equivaent to lagena
columella
658
what is the organ of corti
sensory receptor of sound found in the lagena or in the cochlea
659
what animals have an external ear (pinna)
reptiles, birds, mammals
660
what is the function of the pinna
differentiate sounds from different directions
661
what are the parts of the middle ear
tympanum, meatus, ear ossicles (1-3)
662
what is the tympanum
ear drum
663
what are the three inner ear bones of mammals
stapes, incus, malleus
664
what are the three fluid filled channels in the cochlea
scala vestibuli, scala tympani, scala media
665
where is reissners membrane located
between scala vestibuli and scala media
666
where do sounds enter the inner ear through
oval window
667
what directs pressure waves to the ossicle of the ear
auricles
668
what separates the external and internal ear
tympanic membrane (eardrum)
669
what is the function of the stapes in the inner ear
vibrates with sound making waves of perilymph in the vestibule
670
what is the function of the round window
disipates sound
671
what does the organ of corti run the length of
the basilar membrane
672
what is another name for pinna
auricle
673
the malleus of human ears comes from what in reptiles
malleus comes from articular bone of reptilian jaws
674
what is found at the end of the stapes
footplate
675
what is the cochlear duct (scala media) filled with
endolymph
676
what frequency of sound is interpeted first in the beginning of the cochlea
high pitch heard first, low pitch heard last
677
hair cells in mammal ears are covered by what
gelatinous tectorial membrane
678
what is tectorial membrane of hair cells synonemous with in other verts
columella
679
how do we hear pitches
based on where the sound hits in the scala vestibuli. squeezes the cochlear duct where maximum deflection of those hair cells
680
when losing hearing, what pitch do we lose first
high pitch lost first
681
what do hearing aids do
amplify volume and keep the same pitch
682
what do rods in eyes sense
low light sensors
683
what do cones in eyes sense
colour sensors
684
what is visual accomidation
capacity to focus on objects at different distances
685
different wavelengths are interpreted as (by eye)
different wavelengths are interpreted as different colours
686
what are the three layers to the mammal eye
sclera, choroid, retina
687
what is sclera
the white of the eye
688
the sclera clears at the front of the eye to become the ____
cornea
689
what is the proper name for eye goo
vitreous humour
690
what is the basic travel of light through the eye
light through lens, then vitreous humour, into white sensory retina, into pigmented black retina
691
what if a difference between a light and a dark adapter eye
dark adapted eye has reflective pigmented retina
692
what polarity are motor neurons
multipolar
693
what polarity are sensory neurons
unipolar
694
what kind of neurons are found in the retina
bipolar neurons
695
what cells allow for sharpness in eyes
amocrine cells
696
if an eye only has rods, what can it see
cant see colour
697
where is light transduced
in the disks of the rods/cones
698
what is the transduction path of light
hits the back of the eye at the disk of the rod/cone, travels along rod/cone then synapses with a bipolar neuron, then synapses with a ganglion cell, then travels to 2nd cranial nerve
699
what makes the first synapse of seeing inactive in the dark
in dark glutamate is hitting the synapse making it inactive, light stops glutamate from hitting synapse
700
what are the two photoreceptors in eyes
rods and cones
701
what is the pigment in the pigmented retina
melanin
702
what ion is vital in vision
sodium and potassium
703
bipolar cells have spontaneous
depolarization
704
why are rods and cones leaky
so glutamate can be released if in dark conditions
705
what is glutamate
an inhibitory neurotransmitter
706
why is glutamate inactive with light
because photoreceptors are hyperpolarized and glutamate cant be released
707
the disks in photoreceptors have what pigment
rhodopsin
708
what happens to retinal to stop sodium channels from being leaky
the 11-cis retinal is changed to A11 trans retinal (isomeric change)
709
what kind of photoreceptors do not release glutamate
hyperpolarized
710
what are the tastes we can taste
salty, sweet, sour, bitter, savoury
711
what is olfaction
smelling
712
what are the three anatomical components to smell
olfactory epithelium, olfactory bulb, olfactory tract
713
what bone folds into the nasal cavity
turbinate bone (endothermy association)
714
how many olfactry receptors are there, and how many smells can they detect
40 million receptors that can detect up to 10,000 smells
715
why is smell biologically important to reproduction
women make mating choices based on smell
716
the 1st cranial nerve that is involved in olfaction travels through where
cribiform plate of the ethmoid bone
717
what exactly is a smell
particles dissolved in fluid in nasal epithelium that can be transduced to an action potential
718
what is gustation
taste
719
where are taste cells restricted to in mammals
tongue
720
what are tongue bumps
papillae
721
what is the difference between papillae and taste papillae
only taste papillae if they have receptors for taste
722
what is the general shape of a taste cell
barrell shaped
723
if a taste cell has microvilli then what happens to it
taste cells with microvilli are not chemoreceptors
724
what nerves conduct taste to the brain
7, 9, 10
725
where is the vomeronasal complex located
in the hard palate
726
what does the vomeronasal complex look like
looks very similar to nasal epithelium
727
what kind of neurons are used in the vomerine nasal organ
bipolar
728
where does smell taken with the vomeronasal organ go
accessory olfactory bulb
729
what is the main use of the vomeronasal organ
to sense pharamones
730
what is a pharamone
chemical messenger carried in air from other animals (involved in mating)
731
how do animals get particles into their vomeronasal organ
flehmen response (pushing particles into vomerine complex with tongue)
732
what is the life span of a taste bud cell
1 week
733
what is the actual chemoreceptor cell of taste in a taste bud
gustatory cells
734
what verts have infared
viper snakes
735
what organ does infared stuff
the pit organ
736
what is ir sensitive to
heat, can see heat
737
what cranial nerve is involved in ir
2nd
738
what kinds of verts use electrical fields
fish living in zero visability, and birds
739
how does an electrical field help to tell where a fish is
they generate a weak electrical field around theirself and can build an image of world around them based on signals they can generate
740
how do birds use electrical fields
earth has its geomagnetic field, birds can tap into this visually and use it for navigation
741
neurons are ____ pigs
glucose
742
what does a PET scan do
links positrons to glucode and image to see where those are in the brain (done to see rapid growth)
743
what is the cell body of a neuron called
soma
744
what are the branches of a neuron called
dendrites
745
what is the polarity of a neuron determined by
the position of the soma
746
what is the function of glial cells
surround neurons and hold them in place, supply oxygen and nutrients, insulate neurons, destroy pathogens, remove dead neurons
747
how can you tell a region has a lot of oligodendrocytes
its in the white matter of the brain
748
what is the function of astrocytes
(glial cell) structurally hold up neurons
749
how does long term memory work
dendrocytes make connections and astrocytes help to hold up the connection
750
what is the function of microglial cells
(glial cell) phagocytic and cleans up rubbish
751
what is the function of ependymal epitheliam cells
maintain cerebral spinal fluid
752
what are the three vertebrate kidney types
pronephros, mesonephros, metanephros
753
what animals have pronephros kidney
hagfish and some embryos
754
what animals have mesonephros kidneys
all fish and amphibians
755
what animals have metanephric kidney
reptiles, birds, mammals (anmiotes)
756
what are the 7 names for the kidney duct thing
pronephric duct, mesonephric duct, archinephric duct, wolfian duct, vas deferens, ductus deferens, mullerian duct
757
what does vestigial mean
non functional
758
the gonad rudiment makes what in females
ovaries
759
the gonad rudiment makes what in males
testis
760
females make a new duct to move eggs, what do they make
mullerian duct (lose their mesonephric duct)
761
why cant mammals use the mesonephric kidney
uses too much water for most terrestrial animals
762
how do males avoid developing mullerian ducts
they secrete mullerian inhubiting substance hormone
