Final Flashcards
1
Q
In ancient civilizations, bronze would replace copper because
A
bronze was harder and more durable.
2
Q
The early Neolithic era saw
A
a slow transition from hunting and gathering to an agricultural society.
3
Q
The term “civilization” refers to human societies which, amongst other features,
A
have an urban focus and a distinct religious structure.
4
Q
In agrarian societies, an economic surplus is food which is
A
used to support a non-laboring elite.
5
Q
The Sumerian government
A
came to view kings as agents of their gods.
6
Q
Mesopotamia is located in the valley of the
A
Tigris and Euphrates rivers
7
Q
The basic unit of early Mesopotamian civilization was the
A
city-state.
8
Q
The physical environment of the Mesopotamians generally led to
A
a pessimistic outlook with an emphasis on satisfying their angry gods.
9
Q
The written script of Sumer is known as
A
cuneiform.
10
Q
The Epic of Gilgamesh teaches that
A
human life is difficult and immortality is only for the gods.
11
Q
The ruler of Akkad, who established the first empire in Sumer ca. 2340 B.C. was
A
Sargon.
12
Q
Gilgamesh was
A
the hero of a Sumerian epic poem.
13
Q
Punishments for crimes under the Code of Hammurabi
A
were more severe for the lower classes.
14
Q
Unlike the rivers in Mesopotamia, the Nile River
A
floods predictably at the same time every year.
15
Q
The focal points and sources of life for the ancient Egyptians were the
A
Nile River and the pharaohs.
16
Q
Ancient Egyptian history is divided into ____ major periods.
A
three
17
Q
According to Egyptian theology, the pharaoh derived his authority from
A
the fact that he was perceived as a divine instrument of order and harmony.
18
Q
Egypt’s Old Kingdom ended for
A
a drought caused by low levels of the Nile.
a decline in rainfall.
economic troubles.
decline of centralized authority.
19
Q
The Hyksos
A
were a Semitic-speaking people who infiltrated Egypt in the seventeenth century B.C.
20
Q
The economy of ancient Egypt relied most heavily on
A
agriculture.
21
Q
Which of the following Egyptian gods was most closely associated with the mummification of the dead?
A
Osiris
22
Q
The Egyptian Pyramids were
A
conceived and built as tombs for a city of the dead.
23
Q
In general, during the imperialistic New Kingdom, Egyptian government changed by
A
a gradual lessening in the power of pharaohs over their neighbors.
24
Q
In the thirteenth century the Egyptians were driven out of Palestine and back to their original frontiers by the
A
“Sea Peoples”
25
One of the few female pharaohs was
Hatshepsut.
26
The Hittites
were an Indo-European speaking peoples.
| made iron weapons of war.
27
The Hittites played an important role in the history of the Middle East because they
transmitted Mesopotamian culture to the west, especially to the Mycenaean Greeks.
28
The most famous of the megalithic constructions of Europe is
Stonehenge.
29
The tradition of the Hebrews states that they were descendants of the patriarch ____ who had migrated from Mesopotamia to the land of Palestine.
Abraham.
30
Moses united the Israelites after the Egyptian bondage by putting them under the protection of a new national god named
Yahweh
31
The founder of the Kingdom of Israel (1000-970 B.C.) was the military hero
David
32
Solomon's most revered contribution to the Hebrew society was to
construct the Temple, the symbolic center of the Hebrew religion and society.
33
After the death of Solomon, tensions between the northern and southern tribes led to the establishment of two kingdoms, the kingdom of ____ and the kingdom of ____.
Israel and Judah
34
The destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. and the Babylonian Captivity of the Hebrews occurred at the hands of the
Chaldeans.
35
The Hebrew prophets
were considered by the Hebrews to be the voice of Yahweh.
36
part of the Hebrew religious tradition?
the law
the covenant
the prophets
monotheism
37
The greatest international sea traders of the ancient Near East were the
Phoenicians.
38
The Phoenicians' contributions to the ancient Near East included
the founding of the colony of Carthage.
a simplified alphabet and system of writing.
the establishment of trading stations throughout the Mediterranean.
distribution of Egyptian papyrus throughout the Mediterranean.
39
The Assyrians are important in history for their innovations in
empire building.
40
All of the following helped make Assyria an efficient military machine
iron weapons.
terrorist actions.
superior, diversified tactics.
ruthless leaders.
41
The Assyrian army was able to conquer and maintain an empire due to its
ability to use diversified military tactics.
42
The Assyrians' use of terror tactics and atrocities
especially targeted inhabitants of the empire who rebelled against Assyrian rule.
43
Nebuchadnezzar II accomplished all of the following
```
rebuilding Babylon.
c.
defeating the Assyrians.
d.
building the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
e.
destroyed Judah and carried the population into exile.
```
44
The Ishtar Gate sat outside the city of
Babylon.
45
The founder of the Persian Empire, who defeated Babylon and freed the Jews from captivity in 539 B.C., was
Cyrus the Great.
46
The Persian Royal Road stretched from Sardis to the capital at
Susa.
47
Darius accomplished all of the following
building a canal that linked the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.
creating a Persian province in western India.
conquering Thrace.
built a new Persian capital at Persepolis.
48
The Persian Empire's system of satrapies allowed for
The Persian Empire's system of satrapies allowed for
49
The elite infantry of the Persian army were known as the?
Immortals
50
Which of the following statements concerning Zoroastrianism is false?
It did not include a final judgment or a last judgment among its beliefs.
51
Zoroastrianism was
monotheist (one god).
52
The central, sacred text of Zoroastrianism is the
Zend Avesta
53
The decline of the Hittites and Egyptians around 1200 B.C.
created a power vacuum which allowed several small states to emerge and temporarily flourish.
54
What are considered to be part of the Judeo-Christian heritage in West Civilization?
monotheism.
law.
morality.
social justice.
55
All of the following are prominent features of Greece's topography
bays and harbors.
mountains.
valleys.
long seacoast.
56
In general, separate early Greek communities
became fierce rivals fighting so often as to threaten Greek civilization itself.
57
Which of the following statements best describes the Mycenaeans?
They were a warrior people who achieved their apex between 1400 and 1200 B.C.
58
The civilization of Minoan Crete
enjoyed great prosperity due to extensive sea trade and commerce.
developed elaborate skills in art and architecture, visible in their great palaces.
59
What was the chief characteristic of the Greek Dark Age?
It was a period of migrations and declining food production.
60
Homer's Iliad points out the
honor and courage of Greek aristocratic heroes in battle.
61
The polis was the Greek name for
city-state.
62
a characteristic of the typical Greek polis?
It contained an agora and acropolis within its fortifications.
c.
Each polis was autonomous from all other poleis.
d.
The strength of the community came through cooperation.
e.
Most Greek women were restricted largely to the home.
63
had a negative impact on Greek society by
dividing Greece into fiercely competitive city states.
64
The Greek polis put primary emphasis on
cooperation between its citizens for the common welfare.
65
The hoplite phalanx relied for its success on
discipline and teamwork.
66
The rise of tyrants in the poleis in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.
often encouraged the economic and cultural progress of the cities.
67
Which of the following we the most famous and influential Greek poleis
Sparta and Athens
68
The Spartans made the army the center of their society because
they feared an uprising by their helots.
69
Unlike the women of most other Greek cities, Spartan women were expected to
stay physically fit to bear healthy Spartan children.
70
Those in Sparta who were free inhabitants and required to pay taxes and perform military service but who were not citizens of Sparta were
perioikoi.
71
Those in Sparta who were captured and forced to work on farms and as household servants to the Spartans were called
helots.
72
Cleisthenes' constitution established the Athenian government as
a democracy.
73
The strategoi in Athens
was a board of ten generals.
74
The immediate cause of the Persian Wars was
a revolt of the Ionian Greek colonies in Asia Minor.
75
The Battle of Marathon was a victory for
the Athenian hoplites.
76
The narrow pass where 9000 Greek hoplites held a Persian army of over 150,000 men for three days was
Thermopylae.
77
The Delian League was organized by Athens in 478-477 B.C. to
keep Sparta isolated in the Peloponnesus.
78
During the Age of Pericles
Athenians became deeply attached to their democratic system.
79
The Peloponnesian War resulted in
the defeat of Athens and the collapse of its empire.
80
One of the chief causes of the Peloponnesian War was
Sparta's fear of the power of Athens and its maritime empire.
81
The Greek historian Thucydides differed from Herodotus in that the former
was unconcerned with spiritual forces as a factor in history.
82
The Greek dramatist who was a realist and known for his portrayal of realistic characters in real life situations was
Euripides.
83
The Greek Parthenon
is considered the greatest example of classical Greek temple architecture.
84
Early Greek philosophy attempted to
explain the universe on the basis of unifying principles.
85
The Sophists
were professional teachers who seemed to question the traditional values of their societies.
86
Socrates was condemned to death for
corrupting the youth of Athens.
87
"The unexamined life is not worth living" is a cornerstone of the philosophy of
Socrates.
88
Plato, in The Republic, imagines a perfect society ruled by
philosopher-kings.
89
true of Greek religion?
.
It was polytheistic.
It involved ritual and sacrifice.
Festivals were held to honor the gods.
Each city had a chief god or goddess.
90
Philip II's military reforms?
He made use of cavalry contingents in breaking the opposing line of battle.
His warriors used a longer thrusting spear, double that of the Greek hoplite.
Made use of engineers who designed catapults to destroy enemy fortifications.
His infantrymen carried smaller shields and shorter swords than Greek hoplites.
91
At the Battle of Chaeronea (338 B.C.E.), Philip II
defeated the Greek poleis, ending their independence.
92
All of the following were conquered by Alexander
Syria.
Babylon.
Egypt.
Persia.
93
Alexander's military success against the Persians was in part attributable to
the role of Alexander's cavalry as a strike force.
94
Which of the following was Alexander's last battle against the Persian king Darius, in which Darius fled?
Guagamela.
95
Alexander the Great succeeded in expanding his empire for all the following reasons
the military expertise he gained prior to his father's assassination..
having the strong personal loyalty of his troops
his ability to adapt quickly to changing circumstance
proper use of cavalry and phalanx formations
96
Alexander the Great's troops rebelled when he made the decision to invade and capture
India.
97
The Hellenistic era describes an age that saw
the extension and imitation of Greek culture throughout the ancient Near East.
98
The Greek general who took Egypt after Alexander's death and converted it into the first Hellenistic kingdom was
Ptolemy.
99
Considered the greatest ruler in India’s history, who extended the empire to include most of India and was a pious Buddhist
Asoka.
100
Which of the following statements best describes Hellenistic cities?
important centers of administration, most of which were dominated by Greeks and Greek culture.
101
By the 1st century B.C.E., which of the following was the largest city in the Mediterranean?
Alexandria
102
Improvements in trade and commerce in the Hellenistic world were greatly aided by all of the following
improvements in harbors.
a money economy.
the development of major trade routes.
the emergence of a large merchant and artisan class.
103
The economic life of the Hellenistic world was characterized by
commerce and trade expanding considerably
104
Which class of women achieved the most notable gains during the Hellenistic period?
upper class
105
major source of slaves in the Hellenistic world?
prisoners of war became slaves of their captors.
persons kidnapped by pirates could be auctioned off as slaves.
persons whose parents were slaves.
children were sold into slavery by their parents.
106
Hellenistic education as embodied in the gymnasium
closely and widely followed classical Greek ideas about proper education.
107
The scientific foundations of medicine made by Alexandrian physicians
were made possible through the use of dissection and vivisection.
108
were made possible through the use of dissection and vivisection.
Alexandria.
109
The surviving works of the Greek historian Polybius demonstrate
his following of Thucydides in seeking rational motives for historical events.
110
Who was credited with having been the first to separate medicine from philosophy?
Hippocrates.
111
The Alexandrian scholar Euclid's most famous achievement was
systematizing the study of geometry.
112
The most famous scientist of his era, Archimedes of Syracuse, was responsible for all of the following
.
uniting the disciplines of science and religion.
designing military devices to thwart siege attackers.
creating the science of hydrostatics.
establishing the value of the mathematical constant pi.
work on the geometry of spheres and cylinders.
113
Stoicism
maintained that people could gain inner peace by seeking virtue and living according to nature.
114
The widespread popularity of Stoicism and Epicureanism in the Hellenistic world
suggested a new openness to thoughts of universality.
115
In the Hellenistic era, medicine
progressed due to the use of dissection and vivisection.
116
Which of the following led a revolt against Seleucid monarchy in Judea in the 160s B.C.E.?
Judas Maccabaeus.
117
For the Romans, Italy's geography
made Rome a natural crossroads and an area easy to defend.
118
Rome was established in the first millennium B.C.E. on the
plain of Latium.
119
The people to the north of Rome who apparently ruled Rome for a century and heavily influenced Roman urban culture were the
Etruscans.
120
Rome set a precedent for treating its vanquished foes after forming the Roman Confederation by
offering the most favored "allied" peoples full Roman citizenship, thus giving them a stake in successful Roman expansion.
121
In defeating the Greek city-states in southern Italy, Rome
had to fight the soldiers of King Pyrrhus, sent against them by the Greeks.
122
The Roman Dictator
was a temporary executive during the period of the Republic.
| exercised unlimited power for a period of usually six months.
123
The Struggle of the Orders
was a peaceful struggle which resulted in political compromise.
124
Imperium
the power/authority to command Roman citizens.
125
As Rome expanded, it became Roman policy to govern the provinces with officials known as
proconsuls and propraetors.
126
The paterfamilias in Roman society was
the male head of the household.
127
Originally the Roman Senate
could only advise the magistrates in legal matters.
128
The Twelve Tables was/were
the first formal codification of Roman law and customs.
129
The Carthaginians originated from
Phoenician Tyre.
130
As a result of the First Punic War
the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw from Sicily and pay an indemnity to Rome.
131
What was the significance of Scipio Africanus in the Second Punic War?
He expelled the Carthaginians from Spain and later won the decisive Battle of Zama.
132
The Second Punic War saw Carthage
carry a land war to Rome by crossing the Alps.
133
At the Battle of Cannae the Romans
suffered a devastating defeat by Hannibal.
134
The result of the Third Punic War was
the complete destruction and subjugation of Carthage.
135
It can best be said that Roman imperial expansion was
highly opportunistic, responding to unanticipated military threats and possibilities for glory.
136
Which of the following statements best applies to Roman schooling:
Education stressed training in Greek and mastery of rhetoric, or persuasive public speaking.
137
By the latter Republic, Roman slaves
often worked on the Roman latifundia.
138
In Rome, the male family head, the paterfamilias, could
sell his children.
put his children to death.
arrange the marriages of all offspring.
divorce his wife.
139
Which one of the following innovations enabled Romans to erect giant amphitheaters, public baths, and high-rise tenement buildings?
concrete.
140
Romans did not readily accept any Greek philosophy except that of
Stoicism, because of its emphasis on virtue and duty.
141
Tiberius Gracchus ran for tribune in 133 B.C.E. on a program of
providing farms to landless farmers.
142
The reforms of Gaius and Tiberius Gracchus
resulted in further instability and violence as they polarized various social groups.
143
Sulla's legacy and importance was that he
employed his personal army in political disputes, paving the way toward Roman civil war.
144
Among the dangerous military innovations of Marius threatening the Republic, one finds he
recruited destitute volunteers who swore an oath of allegiance only to him.
145
Julius Caesar
led military commands in Spain and especially Gaul that enhanced his popularity.
146
The First Triumvirate was a political alliance between Crassus, Julius Caesar, and
Pompey.
147
By crossing the Rubicon, Caesar showed that he
was willing to disobey the direct orders of the Senate.
148
All of the following were results of the Roman civil wars of 43-30 B.C.E.
defeat of Caesar's assassins.
demise of republican institutions.
rule of Octavian.
the suicide of Antony and Cleopatra.
149
After imposed retirement from Roman politics, Cicero took up writing
philosophical treatises.
150
The Roman Senate under Augustus was
retained as the chief deliberative body of the Roman state.
151
The absolute monarchical powers of Augustus as princeps led to
the usual victory of his candidates in official elections.
the decline of popular participation in elections.
his great popularity, as he followed proper legal forms for his power.
152
The Senate granted Octavian the title Imperator (Emperor) but he preferred to be addressed as
princeps
153
The colonies of veterans established by Augustus throughout the empire proved especially valuable in
Romanizing the provinces.
154
The Roman praetorian guards were
elite troops given the task of protecting the emperor.
155
Under the rule of Augustus, the Roman Empire
turned towards an absolute monarchy, with the princeps overshadowing the Senate.
156
Roman provincial and frontier policy under Augustus was characterized by all of the following
the encouragement of self-government among provincial cities.
provincial rule by proconsuls.
minimum military force to the east.
a withdrawal from military activity in central Europe after military defeat by German tribes.
157
The event that curtailed Augustus's expansionist policies was
the defeat by Varus in the Teutoburg Forest.
158
Which of the following statements best describes the governing of Roman provinces under Augustus?
efficient, with legates cooperating with the local elites
159
Among Augustus' most important actions in the area of Roman religion was his
creation of an imperial cult.
160
Livy was best known in the Augustan Age for his
History of Rome in 142 books.
161
The "golden age" historian Livy is well known for his
perceiving history in terms of sharp moral lessons.
162
When Augustus died, who chose his successor?
Augustus himself.
163
Which of the statements best describes the Julio-Claudian emperors?
varied in ability and effectiveness
164
Which of the following trends developed during the reigns of the Julio-Claudian emperors?
Emperors took more and more actual ruling power away from the old Senate.
165
Hadrian's wall was built to protect
Roman Britain.
166
All of the following occurred during the reigns of the five "good emperors"
being a period of peace for approximately 100 years.
the establishment of educational programs for the poor.
extensive building programs.
being an era of prosperity
167
During the Early Empire (14-180 A.D.), the Roman army
was increased to 400,000 men.
168
The "good emperor" Marcus Aurelius was regarded as a philosopher king deeply influenced by the principles of
Stoicism.
169
The largest area of Roman innovation in architecture was
the use of concrete on a massive scale.
170
true of the Colosseum:
Its official name was the Flavian Amphitheater.
It could seat 50,000 spectators.
It was the scene of gladiatorial combats.
It was built by Vespasian.
171
Among the upper classes of the Early Empire
women had considerable freedom and independence.
172
Imperial Rome's gladiatorial shows
were government-backed spectacles used to content the masses.
173
following statements was true of Roman society in the early Empire:
The introduction of Hellenistic doctors made medicine more scientific.
The "classical age" of Roman law occurred in this era.
Upper-class women gained considerable freedom and independence.
The emperors increased their authority over the Senate.
174
Which one of the following mystery cults had a great following, especially among the urban poor
Isis.
175
The mystery cult of Mithraism in the Early Empire
was a religion especially favored by soldiers.
176
The early values of Christianity, as exemplified in Jesus' "sermon on the mount,"
emphasized devotion to the values of humility, charity, and true brotherly love.
177
The most important figure in early Christianity after Jesus was
Paul of Tarsus.
178
The word "gospels" means
good news.
179
The last great persecution of Christians was ordered by
Diocletian.
180
The late third century emperor who reconquered and reestablished order in the east and along the Danube and who was known as the "restorer of the world" was
Aurelian.
181
Tetrarchy was Diocletian's plan to
more easily rule the enormous Roman Empire
182
Constantine's most enduring reform came in the creation of
the "New Rome."
183
The political, economic, and social policies of the restored empire under Diocletian and Constantine
were based on coercion and the loss of individual freedom.
184
Before the Battle of Milvian Bridge, Constantine received a vision of
victory under Christ's protection.
185
The Edict of Milan
was Constantine's document officially tolerating the existence of Christianity.
186
The heresy of Arianism
questioned the divinity of Jesus.
187
In the late fourth century, the Visigoths and other Germanic tribes, were pushed into the Balkans region of the Eastern Roman Empire because of pressure from the
Vikings.
188
In 476, the boy emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed by
Odoacer.
189
After the death of Theodoric, the Ostrogothic kingdom
was defeated by the Byzantines, reducing Rome as a center of Mediterranean culture.
190
The founder of the Frankish kingdom and the first monarchic, Frankish defender of the Catholic faith was
Clovis.
191
The Frankish palace official, Charles Martel, successfully defended the civilization of the new western European kingdoms in 732 by
defeating Muslim armies in 732.
192
The withdrawal of Roman armies from Britain enabled
Angles and Saxons, Germanic tribes from Denmark and Germany, to invade and to establish new kingdoms on the isle.
193
The pope who supposedly caused Attila and the Huns to turn away from Rome was
Leo I.
194
The Petrine Doctrine
was the belief that the bishops of Rome held a preeminent position in the church.
195
The title "Vicars of Christ" has traditionally been given to the
Bishops of Rome.
196
Augustine wrote which one of the following books?
The City of God.
197
Augustine's Confessions was written as
an account of his own miraculous personal conversion.
198
The basic rule for western monastic living was developed by
Benedict.
199
The Order of St. Benedict stressed
a balance of study, work, and prayer.
200
The "Apostle to the Germans" and the most famous churchman in Europe in the eighth century was
Boniface.
201
The primary instrument of Pope Gregory for converting the Germanic peoples of Europe was
monasticism.
202
he great Christian scholar of late antiquity, Cassiodorus, divided the seven liberal arts into the trivium and quadrivium. According to Cassiodorus, the trivium includes
grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic or logic.
203
Justinian's military conquests under the general, Belisarius,
were short-lived.
204
Justinian's most important contribution to Western civilization was his
codification of law.
205
In the year 532, Justinian almost fled the capital because of
the Nika riots.
206
The Church of Hagia Sophia is recognizable by
a large dome, symbolizing the sphere of heaven.
207
The controversy of 730 that set the Latin and Greek Orthodox Christians apart was over
iconoclasm, or the destruction of icons.
208
Muhammad was born in
Mecca.
209
The cardinal principle of the Islamic faith is that there is only God and his prophet is
Muhammad.
210
Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 is known as the
Hegira
211
similarity between Christianity and Islam?
Each of the faiths had a holy book.
Both religions were monotheistic.
Both religions had as part of their scriptures divine revelation.
Both religions envisioned heaven or paradise for believers.
212
The successors to Muhammad's leadership of the Muslims were known as
caliphs.
213
Muslim societies abide by a strict code of law, much of it derived from the holy book Qur'an, and regulating all aspects of Muslim life. This law code is called
Shari'a
214
The Muslim dynasty that assumed power after the assassination of Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali, and moved the capital to Damascus was the
Umayyad.
215
The first Frankish king to be anointed in holy ceremony by an agent of the pope was
Pepin.
216
The expansion of the Carolingian Empire under Charlemagne
was most successful against the German tribes to the east.
217
The missi dominici were officials that Charlemagne used to
check on his Counts.
218
The coronation of Charlemagne in 800 as emperor of the Romans
symbolized the fusion of Roman, Germanic, and Christian cultures.
219
The Carolingian monks
through their copying of manuscripts the works of Latin classical authors were preserved.
220
The Carolingian scholar Alcuin is best noted for
helping to lay the foundation for medieval education.
221
Socially and culturally, the church's advocacy of indissoluble marriage resulted in
the development of the nuclear family at the expense of the extended family.
222
In the Middle Ages, monastic hospitality to travelers was
a sacred duty.
223
The staple food in the Carolingian diet was
bread.
224
Which of the following was a similarity between medicine in the Early Middle Ages and medicine in earlier pagan times?
In both periods, magical rites, charms, and amulets were used.
225
The Treaty of Verdun in 843
divided the Carolingian empire.
226
The division of Europe into three kingdoms after the death of Louis the Pious led to
an incessant struggle between Louis the German, Charles the Bald, and their heirs over disputed territories.
227
The Magyars
were originally from western Asia.
228
The Swedish Vikings tended to concentrate on conquests and trade in
Russia
229
One of the most famous Vikings, who discovered Greenland, was
Leif Erikson.
230
In Western Europe, the chief political repercussion of frequent Viking raids was
an increase in the power of local aristocrats to whom threatened populations turned for effective protection.
231
In feudal Europe, a vassal was a man who
served another person as a warrior.
232
The lord-vassal relationship in the Germanic practice of medieval Europe
was an honorable relationship between free men.
233
In feudal Europe, a manor was
an agricultural estate owned by a lord and worked by peasants.
234
Under feudalism of the Early Middle Ages
the major obligation of a vassal to his lord was to provide military service.
235
In 987, the Western Frankish nobility met and elected ____ as their king, contributing to the formation of a new dynasty to rule France for centuries.
Hugh Capet
236
Among Otto I's more successful actions that clearly benefited the kingship of Germany was
defeat of the Magyars at the battle of Lechfeld in 955 and Christianization of eastern Europe.
237
The English king who helped establish a unified Anglo-Saxon monarchy by defeating the Danish army was
Alfred the Great.
238
The economic structure of the Early Middle Ages
was underdeveloped and predominantly agricultural.
239
By the early eleventh century, the Byzantine Empire
had achieved a new brilliance of power and influence under the Macedonians.
240
The Poles, Czechs, and Hungarians
were greatly influenced by assimilation into the Catholic church and Latin culture.
241
The Swedish Vikingsthe Varangiansbecame known or assimilated with which of the following groups:
Russians
242
The Slavic people of the Rus were best known for
founding the state that became known as Russia.
243
The ruthless Russian leader responsible for tying Russian political and religious ideals to the Byzantine Empire was
Vladimir.
244
A comparison of Islam and Western Civilization in the eighth and ninth centuries shows
Muslim creation of a brilliant and sophisticated urban culture while western society remained a world of petty and violent agricultural villages.
245
The capital of the Abbasid caliphate during the high point of Islamic culture was the city of
Baghdad.
246
The Abbasids
broke down the distinctions between Arab and non-Arab Muslims.
247
The dramatic increases in European population between 1000 and 1300
were primarily due to an increased birth rate outstripping high medieval mortality rates.
248
In which of the following places was significant landmass "reclaimed" from the sea?
Netherlands.
249
One consequence of the new agriculture of the Early Middle Ages was
the destruction of the forests.
250
The "agricultural revolution" of the High Middle Ages
was in part brought about by a change from the two-field to the three-field system.
251
carruca
a heavy-wheeled, iron-tipped plow.
252
Which of the following allowed for a more diversified and intelligent use of farmland?
The three-field system.
253
The basic staple of the peasant diet was
bread.
254
The village church
was led by local priests who were often barely literate.
255
In northern European countries, the most common drink of the medieval peasant was
Ale
256
The high number of fights and accidents described in medieval court records is plausibly attributed to
the high consumption of alcohol.
257
Male nobles of the High Middle Ages
were almost solely preoccupied with warfare.
258
In medieval thought, women were considered
by nature subservient and lesser beings than men.
259
The main part of the medieval castle was called the
keep.
260
Combative tournaments involving knights
were considered excellent and necessary training for warfare.
261
Marriages among the aristocracy of the High Middle Ages were
were expected to establish political alliances between families and increase their wealth.
262
By the twelfth century, divorce among nobles was
not possible except through official recognition that a marriage had never been valid.
263
The area that assumed a leading role in the revival of trade in the Early Middle Ages was
Italy.
264
The center of the North Sea/Baltic trade route in northern Europe in the 1100s and 1200s, and an important center of woolen cloth production, was
Flanders.
265
The growing independence of medieval urban areas was largely attributable to the
revival of commerce.
266
Merchant cities in N. Europe, with names ending in "-burg" or "-borough", grew up in the 1100s around
the castles of noblemen.
267
The most important six-times-a-year trade fair during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was sponsored by the counts of
Champagne.
268
To protect their interests against nobles, townspeople often formed
communes.
269
A major motive contributing to the revolutionary political behavior of European townspeople was
their great need for unfettered mobility to conduct trade efficiently.
270
On the whole, medieval cities tended to be
relatively undemocratic; the wealthy usually ruled and voted in civic elections.
271
Medieval cities
had skylines dominated by the towers of churches, castles, and town halls.
272
A major cause of pollution in medieval cities was
the smell and waste of animals and humans.
273
Drinking water in the cities of the Middle Ages usually came from
Wells
274
apply to the revival of Roman law?
It sparked creation of an elaborate, systematic compilation by Italian jurists of all previous legal commentaries known as "the ordinary gloss."
It contributed to the decline of older, more barbaric forms of conflict resolution.
It changed how professors in law school taught their subject.
It replaced the old system of the ordeal by a rational process based upon the collection and analysis of evidence.
275
a characteristic of Romanesque architecture?
churches in this style were built in rectangular shape
massive pillars and walls were required for support
heavy barrel vaults with rounded stone roofs replaced flat wooden roofs
few windows.
276
The first university to be founded in Europe appeared in
Bologna
277
The first university in northern Europe was
Paris
278
The first medical school was established in
Salerno, Italy
279
Students in medieval universities
often engaged in quarrels with one another and in confrontations with townspeople.
280
Concerning the curriculum of the medieval university
students studied the trivium and quadrivium.
281
The renaissance of the twelfth century was primarily caused by
circulation in the west in Latin translation of many ancient philosophical and scientific works previously saved by Muslim scholars.
282
The revival of Classical Antiquity in Europe was spurred after 1150 by the recovery of many of the lost works of
Aristotle
283
The primary preoccupation of scholasticism was
the reconciliation of faith with reason.
284
Peter Abelard's most famous work was
Yes and No
285
The medieval theological debate between the scholastic realists and nominalists
centered around the problem of universals and the nature of reality.
286
The church figure who tried to reconcile faith with reason in his Summa Theologica was
Thomas Aquinas
287
The word "vernacular" means
Local Language
288
Much of the surplus resources of medieval urban society went into
the construction of castles and churches reflecting its basic preoccupations, warfare and God.
289
The dominant style of the church architecture in the eleventh and twelfth centuries was
Romanesque.
290
The Gothic style of architecture emerged and was perfected in
France.
291
William the Conqueror took over England in 1066 after the Battle of
Hastings.
292
Feudalism in England under William I differed from feudalism in most other countries in that
he required all sub-vassals to swear allegiance to him.
293
3. The king of England responsible for establishing royal courts and common law was
Henry II
294
. One of the great political developments in England in the thirteenth century was
the emergence of the English Parliament under Edward I.
295
. The Magna Carta could best be described as
an affirmation of the traditional rights of barons.
296
. Parliament in England originally arose from the
king's need to collect new taxes.
297
. When the rule of the Capetians began at the end of the tenth century
the French king only controlled an area known as the Ile-de-France.
298
. By the end of the twelfth century, Spain was
free of Muslim control in the northern half of the country.
299
The policy that Spanish Christian rulers followed during the Reconquest in distributing lands, houses, and property of Muslims to Christians was known as
repartimiento.
300
. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Holy Roman Emperors
was a brilliant scholar who wrote treatises on political philosophy.
301
. Frederick Barbarossa was defeated at Legnano in 1176, ending his attempts to control
the towns in northern Italy.
302
. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen
allowed his kingdom to fall into chaos by leading military ventures in Italy.
303
. Scandinavia by the twelfth century
had accepted Christianity through the agency of local kings who wished to better organize and govern their states.
304
The Teutonic Knights
were started to protect the Christian holy land
305
. The founder of the Mongol Empire was
Genghis Khan.
306
Kublai Khan conquered
Russia.
Persia.
Poland.
Hungary.
307
19. The Mongol invasions of eastern Europe and Russia eventually led to
the dominance of Alexander Nevsky's descendants over all of Russia.
308
20. The main religion in Russia at this time was
e. Eastern Orthodox.
309
21. The secularization of bishops and abbots in the Early Middle Ages led to
a decline in the execution of their spiritual duties weakening the moral authority of the church.
310
22. Cluny was
Benedictine monastery in France founded by William of Aquitaine
311
23. The investiture controversy concerned the issue of
who could bestow a church position on a man.
312
24. Pope Gregory VII
claimed that popes had the right to depose kings and emperors.
313
25. In 1077 at Canossa, King Henry IV
received absolution and forgiveness after humbling himself before the pope.
314
26. The investiture controversy was resolved in 1122 by a compromise agreement known as the Concordat of
Worms.
315
27. The church during the twelfth century became very centralized, chiefly due to
an efficient and well-organized church hierarchy.
316
28. The papacy reached its zenith of power in the thirteenth century during the papacy of
Innocent III
317
29. The action of the medieval church that closed churches in a region or a country and that forbade the clergy from administering the sacraments to the populace was
the interdict.
318
30. In general, monasteries performed all the following
prayed for themselves and others.
copied manuscripts.
provided food and clothing for the poor.
took care of the sick and ran hospitals.
319
31. The Cistercians, a new reform-minded monastic order,
eliminated all decorations from their churches.
c.
spent more time in private prayer and manual labor by curtailing religious services.
320
32. Hildegard of Bingen, one of the most accomplished nuns of the twelfth century, is noted for all of the following
three books of her personal religious experiences.
mystical visions of the divine.
fame as abbess of a convent.
contributions to the body of music known as Gregorian chant or plainsong.
321
33. Bones or important possessions of saints were known as
relics
322
34. Saint Dominic, founder of the new Dominican order of preachers,
was an intellectual who created a new order of learned prelates to fight heresy within the church.
323
The church's practice of indulgences in the High Middle Ages was primarily connected with the
remission of the time spent in purgatory.
324
36. The church taught that purgatory was
a place where the soul was purified through punishment before admission to heaven.
325
37. The sacramental system of the Catholic Church
made the church an integral part of the people's lives from birth to death.
326
38. Saint Francis of Assisi stressed that
his followers must accept strict vows of poverty and live by working and beg for food.
327
39. Followers of the Cathar (Albigensian) heresy believed that
the spirit is pure but the body is corrupt and evil.
328
The heresy in southern France which Pope Innocent III stamped out with an internal crusade was the
Cathar heresy.
329
41. The papal inquisition, or the Holy Office, a church court designed to try and punish heretics,
accepted accusations of heresy against anyone.
330
42. The persecutions against European Jews in the High Middle Ages were
frequently inspired by the Christian crusades.
331
43. The Fourth Lateran Council decided
to live in ghettos, to wear distinguishable clothin
332
. By the thirteenth century, a previous acceptance of homosexuality by church and society had been replaced by Christian persecution of homosexuals due to all of the following
```
the writings of Thomas Aquinas.
b.
a rising tide of intolerance in Europe.
c.
the identification of homosexuals with other detested minority groups in society.
```
333
The Islamic world in the mid-eleventh century was largely unified and dominated by the
Seljuks.
334
. In 1071, at Manzikert, the Seljuk Turks defeated the
Byzantines.
335
47. The Schism in the Byzantine Empire took place between the
a. Orthodox church and the Catholic church.
336
. Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont in 1095
promised remissions of sins for joining the crusades to recapture the Holy Land.
337
the "Peasant's Crusade"
they were massacred by the Turks when they reached Asia Minor.
338
. After capturing the city of Jerusalem in 1099, the Christian soldiers of the First Crusade
created several Christian crusader states with feudal institutions.
339
. The Fourth Crusade was diverted from Jerusalem and ended up sacking
Constantinople.
340
All of the following countries were part of the Third Crusade
England.
France.
Germany.
341
results of the crusades?
ome cultural exchanges between Christians and Muslims
b.
new economic growth of Italian port cities
c.
by removing many young warriors to the Middle East, European society was possibly more stable and European monarchs gained greater control.
d.
increasingly common and violent attacks on European Jews by Christians
342
1. Among the adverse economic and population changes in fourteenth-century Europe were
shrinking peasant land holdings below the size needed to support a family.
an exodus of residents from overpopulated rural areas.
rapidly rising numbers of poor people in cities.
343
2. What was the main cause of the early fourteenth century famines?
a little ice age inducing bad weather with heavy rains
344
3. The bubonic plague originated in
Asia
345
4. The Black Death
recurred in severe outbreaks for centuries.
346
5. Pogroms were
organized massacres against the Jews.
347
6. All of the following were reactions to the great plague
an increase in violence and murder due to a sense of life's cheapness.
the formation of groups like the flagellants, who physically maimed themselves to save the world.
morbidity and preoccupation with death in everyday life.
economic depression.
348
flagellants
were groups that physically punished themselves to win the forgiveness of God.
349
8. The persecutions against Jews during the Black Death
reached their worst excesses in German cities.
350
9. The devastation of the great plague in the fourteenth century led to
the perception of life as something cheap and passing.
351
10. Economically, the great plague and the crises of the fourteenth century
raised wages because of a scarcity of labor.
352
11. The European aristocracy responded to the adversity of the great plague by
seeking to lower wages by legal means, especially for farm laborers.
353
12. Post-plague socioeconomic relations between rich and poor in Europe
got much worse as materially threatened nobles began to regard wealthier peasants and their new-found desires for meat and wine with utter contempt.
354
13. A key economic consequence of the plague was
a decline in manorialism and weakening of feudalism as noble landlords desperate for cash converted peasant labor service to market rents freeing their serfs.
355
14. The French government and aristocracy responded to the Jacquerie by
massacring the participants.
356
15. The English Peasants' Revolt of 1381
was caused by the rising economic expectations of ordinary people.
357
16. Merchants and manufacturers responded to the economic tribulations of the fourteenth century by
restricting competition and resisting the demands of the lower classes.
358
17. One major issue behind the Hundred Years' War was a claim to the French throne by the English king
Edward III.
359
18. One decisive advantage that England had at the beginning of the Hundred Years' War was
longbow
360
19. In the conduct of the Hundred Years' War, a sure sign of feudalism's decline was the
decisive role of peasant foot soldiers rather than mounted knights.
361
20. The crucial battle of the Hundred Years' War that was won by Henry V in 1415 and that led to the treaty and apparent victory in the war for Henry and England was the Battle of
Agincourt.
362
21. Joan of Arc saved France by inspiring the French soldiers to break the English siege of
Orleans.
363
22. After helping drive the English from France, Joan of Arc went on to
be burned at the stake as a heretic.
364
23. During the reign of Edward III of England, the Great Council of the barons
became the House of Lords forming a hereditary body of peers in Parliament.
365
One decisive advantage that France had at the end of the Hundred Years' War was
Cannons
366
25. Politically, France by the end of the fourteenth century saw
chaos and civil war as rival noble factions fought for control of the realm.
367
26. The Golden Bull of 1356 in Germany
gave seven electors the power to choose the "king of the Romans."
368
27. Prior to the Golden Bull of 1356, Germany was a land composed of
hundreds of virtually independent states.
369
28. Politically, Italy and Germany were similar in the fourteenth century because
both regions failed to develop a centralized monarchical state.
370
The Italian condottieri were
leaders of mercenary bands, occasionally ruling as military dictators.
371
30. Florence was ruled throughout most of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the
popolo grasso
372
31. The chief ambition of the Venetian city-state in the fourteenth century was
to create a commercial empire throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas.
373
32. In Venice, ultimate governmental executive power was held by the
Council of Ten.
374
33. The conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and Philip IV of France began when Philip
taxed churchmen without the Church's permission.
375
34. From 1305 to 1377, the Papacy resided across the French border in the town of
Avignon.
376
35. One overall result of the Great Schism was to
badly damaged the faith of many Christian believers.
377
36. The Great Schism arose in 1378 when
the French cardinals elected a second pope.
378
In Defender of The Peace, Marsiglio of Padua took the position that
the church must consign itself solely to spiritual functions.
379
38. Mysticism in the fourteenth century
emphasized an intensely personal feeling of oneness with God.
380
39. The mystic who founded the Modern Devotion movement and led the group known as the Brothers of the Common Life was
Gerard Groote.
381
40. Meister Eckhart
was a mystic who claimed that one could achieve a union of the soul with God.
382
The fifteenth century philosopher and theologian who claimed that reason could not prove spiritual truth was
Occam.
383
42. What was Boccaccio's most famous work?
The Decameron
384
Dante's Divine Comedy
is considered a synthesis of medieval Christian thought.
385
Ars moriendi refers to the
art of dying.
386
46. Among the great and influential female religious mystics of the fourteenth century was
Catherine of Siena.
387
47. Changed urban attitudes in the fourteenth century included
the regulation and acceptance of prostitution in most communities.
388
48. Concerning parent-child relationships in the Middle Ages
parents lavished considerable attention and affection on their offspring.
389
49. The most revolutionary of thirteenth and fourteenth-century inventions was/were
Clocks
390
50. Women benefited from the black death because
there were new employment opportunities.
391
1. The Italian Renaissance was primarily
a recovery or rebirth of antiquity and Greco-Roman culture.
392
2. The word "Renaissance" means
rebirth
393
3. The wealth of the northern Italian cities that funded the Renaissance was gained mostly from
trade
394
4. According to Jacob Burckhardt, the Renaissance in Italy represented
a distinct break from the Middle Ages and the true birth of the modern world.
395
5. The family of merchants and bankers who dominated Florence during the high pomediciint of the Renaissance was the
Medici
396
6. What was the commercial and military league set up off the north coast of Germany?
Hanseatic League
397
7. Two key areas of Renaissance technological innovation were
mining and metalworking, including manufacture of firearms.
398
The author of the Book of the Courtier, a handbook on courtly manners, was
Baldassare Castiglione.
399
Castiglione's The Courtier was a
very popular handbook laying out the new skills in politics, the arts, and personal comportment expected of Renaissance aristocrats.
400
10. The achievements of the Italian Renaissance were the products of
an elite movement, involving small numbers of wealthy patrons, artists, and intellectuals.
401
11. The aristocracy of the sixteenth century was
to dominate society as it had done in the Middle Ages.
402
The population of the urban areas during the Renaissance included all of the following people groups
bankers.
guild masters.
artisans.
patricians.
403
13. The Third Estate of the fifteenth century was
overwhelmingly made up of peasants.
404
14. Western Europe in the Renaissance saw
a decline in serfdom.
405
15. Slavery in Renaissance Italy
saw slaves from Africa and the eastern Mediterranean used mostly as courtly domestic servants and as skilled workers.
406
16. The reintroduction of slavery in the fourteenth century occurred largely as a result of
the shortage of workers created by the Black Death.
407
Which of the following statements best describes marriage in Renaissance Italy?
Marriages were usually arranged, to strengthen familial alliances.
408
18. Marriages in Renaissance Italy
were an economic necessity of life involving complicated family negotiations.
409
19. By the fifteenth century, Italy was
the rise of several new neo-pagan, polytheistic cults.
410
20. Perhaps the most famous of Italian ruling woman was
Isabella d'Este.
411
21. Federigo da Montefeltro of Urbino was
an example of a skilled, intelligent, independent Italian warrior prince.
412
The Peace of Lodi served to
maintain peace between the Italian states for 40 years.
413
Machiavelli's The Prince advocates that a successful ruler must
act without moral guidelines for the good of the state.
414
24. Italian Renaissance humanism in the early fifteenth century, above all else
was based on the study of the Greco-Roman classics.
415
25. In the late fifteenth century, Italy became a battleground for the competing interests of
Spain and France.
416
26. The father of the Italian Renaissance humanism was
Petrarch.
417
Corpus Hermeticum
contained writings on the occult as well as theological and philosophical speculations
418
Pico della Mirandola's Oration on the Dignity of Man stated that humans
could be whatever they chose or willed.
419
29. A subject of particular interest to fifteenth-century humanists was
the Greek language.
420
30. The liberal education taught by Vittorino da Feltre
contained as its primary goal the creation of well-rounded, virtuous and ethical citizens.
421
In Concerning Character, Pietro Paolo Vergerio argued that liberal studies led to
true freedom and one’s full potential.
422
32. Humanism's main effect on the writing of history was
the secularization of historiography and the explanation of change over time.
423
33. Johannes Gutenberg was a key developer of
the movable type printing press.
424
34. The development of printing in the fifteenth century
ensured that literacy and new knowledge would spread rapidly in European society.
425
35. Italian artists in the fifteenth century began to
experiment in areas of perspective.
426
36. Which pair of artists both sculpted a likeness of David?
Donatello and Michelangelo.
427
38. The painter of the Rome's Sistine Chapel ceiling was
Michelangelo.
428
39. Who painted "The Last Supper"?
Leonardo
429
41. The "new monarchs" of the late fifteenth century in Europe
were focused upon the acquisition and expansion of power.
430
42. The results of the Hundred Years' War
reinvigorated and strengthened the French monarchy.
caused economic turmoil in England.
temporarily strengthened the nobility in England.
431
43. Under Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain
saw Muslim power vanish from the peninsula.
432
45. After 1438, the position of the Holy Roman Emperor remained in the hands of the
Habsburg dynasty.
433
46. The Byzantine Empire was finally destroyed in 1453 by the
Ottoman Turks.
434
47. The Ottoman Turkish sultan who captured Constantinople in 1453 was
Mehmet II.
435
John Wycliffe criticized the Church for
not letting people read the Bible in the vernacular.
436
50. The Renaissance papacy
was often seen as corrupt and debauched, as evidenced by Alexander VI.
437
1. The northern Christian humanists
championed the study of classical and early Christian texts to reform the Catholic Church.
438
The author of Utopia, a satire on European government and society, was
Thomas More.
439
In his "philosophy of Christ," Erasmus emphasized
inner piety.
440
4. The religious reformer who "laid the egg that Luther hatched" was
Desiderius Erasmus.
441
5. Popular religion in the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance was marked by
greater popular belief in the spiritual utility of relics and indulgences.
442
6. The reforming religious organization of the late fifteenth century that included both clergy and laymen was
Oratory of Divine Love.
443
7. Luther's religious crisis came to a head over his growing belief that
no amount of good works could satisfy God's righteousness.
444
9. For Luther, the only sure source of truth and the only reliable path of faith, other than justification, was
The Bible
445
10. The event that eventually led to Luther's break with the church was
widespread sale of indulgences by preaching monks.
446
Luther's pamphlet, The Babylonian Captivity of the Church,
attacked the sacramental system of the church.
447
12. The Edict of Worms
made Luther an outlaw within the Holy Roman Empire.
448
13. Luther's ideas were spread primarily through
sermons.
449
14. The Peasants' War of 1524-1525
was strongly opposed by Luther who saw it as a social revolution from below against God's divine order.
450
15. Concerning the sacraments of the Catholic Church, Luther
rejected all of them except baptism and communion, or the Lord's Supper.
451
16. At its outset, the Reformation in Germany was
largely an urban phenomenon.
452
17. Though Luther was condemned at the Diet of Worms, he survived because he was protected by
the Elector of Saxony.
453
19. Although Charles V had many adversaries, his chief concern during his reign was
Francis I of France.
454
20. In the eastern part of his empire, Charles V faced a threat to his power from
the Ottoman empire.
455
21. The Schmalkaldic War in Germany ended in 1555 with the
Peace of Augsburg.
456
22. The Religious Peace of Augsburg settled the Lutheran problem by adopting the principle that
the ruler of each territory determined the religion there.
457
23. Luther's ideas were most readily accepted in
Scandinavia.
458
24. In the sixteenth century, Switzerland
was made up of thirteen cantons, under the leadership of wealthy bourgeoisie.
459
25. Zwingli's interpretation of the Lord's Supper differed from Luther's in that
Zwingli said the ceremony was only symbolic and that no real transformation in the bread and wine occurred.
460
26. The Swiss religious reformer who established the Protestant Reformation in Zurich was
Zwingli.
461
27. The Anabaptists
advocated adult baptism, and if they had been baptized as children, a second baptism
462
28. The Reformation in England under Henry VIII
was triggered by Henry's desire to annul his marriage.
463
The Dutch Anabaptist who taught that Christians should live separated from the world
Menno Simon
464
30. England's break with the Roman church became official with the passage of the
Act of Supremacy.
465
31. Henry's marriage to Anne Boleyn ended when he executed her for
Adultery
466
32. Mary I Tudor earned her nickname "bloody Mary" by persecuting
Protestants.
467
33. England's Queen Elizabeth could best be described as a
moderate Protestant.
468
34. Which of the following are among the chief characteristics of John Calvin's reform movement?
predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God
469
35. In Calvin's theology, leading a godly life would be evidence that you
have already been chosen to go to heaven.
470
36. In Geneva, the Calvinists
imposed strict penalties for blasphemy and immoral behavior.
471
37. The Reformation changed conceptions of the family by
extolling the superior state of marriage over celibacy.
472
38. The Reformation affected the development of education in Europe by
expanding public access to primary schooling and improving secondary schooling through gymnasiums and ministerial training.
473
Loyola was the founder of
the Society of Jesus.
474
41. The Jesuit missionary who propagated Christianity in India, Malacca and the Moluccas, and Japan, and who died just before reaching China was
Francis Xavier.
475
42. The Catholic Reformation's ultimate refusal to compromise with Protestantism was exemplified by
the Roman Inquisition and the creation of the Index.
476
43. The Council of Trent
reaffirmed traditional Catholic beliefs against the Reformation.
477
44. In France, the Protestant minority was known as
Huguenots.
478
In France, the politiques were
those who placed politics ahead of religion in an attempt to end the wars of religion.
479
47. The greatest advocate of militant Catholicism was
Philip II of Spain.
480
Philip II of Spain was ultimately unable to defeat
the Dutch Republic.
481
49. The importation of silver from the New World to Spain resulted in
inflation.
482
50. Victory over the Spanish Armada at the end of the sixteenth century was achieved by
England.
