Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
What is the difference between nerve cells and glial cells?
A
-Nerve cells (neurons): Conduct electrical impulses/Long processes
-Glial cells (neurological cells): Supporting cells (“glue like”)/Short processes
2
Q
Nerve Cells and Glial Cells are both found in the CNS/PNS (True/False)
A
True
3
Q
The cell body is sometimes also called ____________ (2)
A
Soma or Perikaryon
4
Q
What kind of nucleus does a cell body have?
A
Leptochromatic (increased euchromatin)
5
Q
What are some differences between axons and dendrites?
A
- Length: Axon (Long)/Dendrite (Short)
- Function: Axon (Efferent)/Dendrite (Afferent)
- Origin: Axon (Axon Hillock)/Dendrite (Cell Body)
6
Q
What is a neurophil?
A
Substances found between neuroglial cells including nerve cells and glial cell processes
7
Q
Cell bodies of all neurons are located in the CNS, except _________
A
Ganglia (found in the PNS)
8
Q
What are the four classifications of neurons?
A
-Multipolar
-Bipolar
-Pseudounipolar
-Anaxonic
9
Q
What are the differences between four types of neurons?
A
- Multipolar: An axon and 2+ dendrites (Most common type)
- Bipolar: 1 major axon and 1 major dendrite
-Found in the eye, inner ear, olfactory, epithelium (sensory neurons) - Pseudounipolar: Starts as one but splits into two
- Axonic: No axon (does not produce an action potential)
-Numerous dendrites
10
Q
How do Ligand-Gated Channel and Leaky Channels work?
A
-Ligand-Gated: Gates open when bound to a ligand
-Leaky Channel: Diffusion gradient
(Aid in maintaining equilibrium after hyperpolarization)
11
Q
How does charge and concentrations of Na+ and K+ inside and outside of a Na-K Pump?
A
-Outside of Cell: More Positive/Less Negative (More Na+/Less K+)
-Inside of Cell: Less Positive/More Negative (More K+/Less Na+)
12
Q
What is the typical movement of Na+ and K+ Ions within a Na-K Pump?
A
-3 Na+ In/2 K+ Out
13
Q
What is the resting membrane potential?
A
-70mV
14
Q
What are the membrane potentials needed for a K+ and Na+ channels
A
K+: -55mV
Na+: +40mV
15
Q
What is the difference between depolarization and hyperpolarization?
A
-Depolarization: Influx of positive ions
( More EPSPs than IPSPs)
-Hyperpolarization: Influx of anions/out flux of positive ions (More IPSPs than EPSPs)
16
Q
What causes depolarization and hyperpolarization?
A
Depolarization
-Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential (EPSP)
-Ligand-gated Na+ channels
Hyperpolarization
-Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential (IPSP)
-Caused by Ca+ ions
-Voltage-relegated Ca+ channels open causing exocytosis of neurotransmitter-filled vesicles to synaptic cleft
17
Q
EPSPs and IPSPs are __________ potentials
A
Graded
18
Q
What happens at the axon hillock when the membrane potential reaches -55mV?
A
Causes the voltage gated/Na+ dependent channels to open
-Move down the axolemma
19
Q
All action potentials will decay over time (True/False)
A
False
-Action potentials at +40mV (K+ channels) do not decay
20
Q
Three common morphological types of synapses
A
-Axosomatic synapses: Axon to cell bodies (soma)
(Most Common)
-Axodentritic Synapse: Axon to dendrite
-Axoaxonic Synapses: Axons with other axons
21
Q
Name the different glial cells in the CNS and PNS
A
-CNS glial cells: Oligodendrocytes, Astrocytes, Ependymal Cells, Microglia
-PNS Glial Cells: Schwann Cells, Satellite Cells
22
Q
What are Oligodendrocytes?
A
-Small cells with many processes (“little arms”)
-Rounded Nucleus
-Function: electrical insulation/myelin production in CNS axons
(Looks like “fried egg”-nucleus (dark) and cytoplasm (white)
23
Q
What is the predominant cell type in white matter?
A
Oligodendrocytes
24
Q
What is the most abundant and largest glial cell?
A
Astrocytes
25
What are the main functions in Astrocytes?
-Structural and metabolic support of neurons (especially synapses)
-Repair processes
26
Ependymal cells can be either _______ or _________-shaped. What is the difference between the two?
-Columnar: Actively secreting cells
-Cuboidal
27
Where are Ependymal cells found?
Cerebrum ventricles and central canal (CNS)
28
Ependymal cells have _______ and ________ that extend into the ventricle cavity
-Cilia: Movement of cells for circulation
-Microvilli: Increased surface area
29
What is the function of Ependymal cells?
Production and movement of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
30
Where do Microglial cells originate and who are “brothers” to them
-Originate from monocytes
-“Brothers” to macrophages (similar characteristics)
31
What function to microglial cells have?
-Defense and immune related activities
-More specifically, they move and scan the neutropil for damaged components
-Phagocytotic: Important for immune defence in CNS
32
What are the major functions of schwann cells?
-Myelin production (form myelin sheaths around axon of PNS), insulate cells
33
What are the main functions of satellite cells?
-Structural and metabolic support for neuronal cell bodies (also insulation/nourish)
34
Which glial cells originate in the neural tube?
Oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and Ependymal cell
35
Which glial cell originates in bone marrow (monocytes)?
Microglia
36
Which cells originate at neutral crest?
Schwann cells and satellite cells
37
Where are Schwann cells located?
Peripheral nerves
38
Where are Satellite cells found?
Peripheral ganglia
39
Where are pyramidal neurons found?
Cerebral cortex
40
How are pyramidal neurons arranged?
-Vertically
-Often Connected to a glial cell like an astrocyte
-Give out long vertical dendrites that radiate towards surface
41
What are some identifying characteristics of the cerebellum?
-“Wrinkled” appearance
-Highly folded (folia)
-Branching central medulla of white matter
42
What are the three layers of the cortex and what do they contain?
-Molecular layer: Outer layer; Few neurons and large numbers of unmyelinated fibers
-Purkinje Cells layer: Between ML and GL, huge neuron cells
-Granular layer: Inner layer; Majority of cell bodies
43
What are Purkinje Cells?
-Very large cell bodies
-A relatively fine axon extends down through GL
-An extensively branching dendritic system into the outer molecular layer
44
What are the three meninges?
-Dura Mater: Outer, tough layer
-Arachnoid Mater: Middle, “spider-like”
-Pia Mater: Inner
45
What is the dura mater?
-Dense, irregular connective tissue
-Separated from the arachnoid by a subdural space
46
What is the arachnoid mater?
-Consists of two layers: A CT layer and a trabeculae layer
-Contains CSF (between trabeculae spaces)
47
What is the pia mater?
-Flat cells: Closely associated with the nerve tissue
-Surrounds blood vessels and protects nervous tissue
48
What is the blood brain barrier made up of?
-Capillary endothelium
-Basement membrane (of the endothelial cells)
-Astrocyte processes (feet)
49
What is the Choroid Plexus?
-“Finger-like” projections covered in epidymal cells
-Found in the cavities of the brain (majority 3rd and 4th ventricle)
-Little protein content
-Has: lymphocytes, Na, K, and Cl-
50
What is the function of the choroid plexus?
Remove water from blood and release it as the CSF
51
What is each villus of the choroid plexus made of?
-Capillary endothelial cells
-Layer of pia mater
-Ependymal cells (line the ventricle cavities)
(NO astrocyte layer)
52
Nerve fibers in the PNS are made of axons that are covered with _______________
Schwann cells
53
Schwann cells form _____________ around axons with wide diameter forming __________________
Myelin sheath; myelinated nerve fibers
54
Small diameter axons are covered by Schwann cells but do not have a myelin sheath (True/False)
True
55
Explain the process of a myelinated axon
1. Schwann cell wraps cytoplasmic process around axon
2. Axon is completely enclosed (Mesaxon)
3. Wrapping becomes more compact/Cytoplasm leaves
4. Mature sheath has up to 100 Lamellae with most cytoplasm in the outermost layer
56
In a ____________ axon the nucleus stays in the periphery
Myelinated
57
___________ axons have smaller, thinner axons
Unmyelinated
58
Explain the process of unmyelinated axons
1. Schwann cell envelops multiple axons
2. Axons are enveloped by schwann cells, but have no myelinated sheath around each one
59
________ axons have a central nucleus
Unmyelinated
60
Name the different levels of nerve organization from outermost to innermost?
-Epineurium: Wraps around the entire nerve
-Perineurium: Wraps around each fascicle
-Endoneurium: Wraps around myelinated/myelinated Fibers and axons
61
Astrocytes participate in forming the blood brain barrier (True/False)
True
62
Influx of Na+ ions into the cell causes cell membrane depolarization (True/False)
True
63
Nissl bodies are made of Golgi bodies and neurotransmitters (True/False)
False
(They consist of granular endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes)
64
Unmyelinated neurons do not have Schwann cells (True/False)
False
65
Since grey matter contains most of the cell bodies with dendrites, this is where most synapses occur (True/False)
True
66
During Saltatory conduction, action potential gets weaker at the nodes of Ranvier (True/False)
False
(Nodes of Ranvier allow the generation of a fast electrical impulse along the axon)
67
CSF has all the components of the blood (True/False)
False
(Contains no red blood cells)
68
Purkinje Cells contribute to the regulation and coordination of the motor functions (True/False)
True
69
The pyramidal neurons are found in the cerebellum (True/False)
False
(Found in cerebral cortex, hippocampus and the amygdala)
70
Na-K Pump carries out active transport by utilizing ATP (True/False)
True
71
Resting membrane potential is +40mv
False
(-70mV)
72
Multipolar neurons are few and rare
False
(They are the most common)
73
Mg+ stimulates the exocytosis of neurotransmitter filled vesicles in the axon terminal into the synapse
False
(Ca+)
74
Oligodendrocytes myelinated the axons in the CNS
True
75
Voltage-gated channels are found in the axon hillock and axolemma. Not in the dendrites.
True
76
EPSP and IPSP, both are subthreshold potentials. Individually, they are not sufficient to generate an action potential
True
77
Bipolar neurons are generally found in sensory epithelia of the body
True
78
A synapse between an axon and a perikaryon is called as Axosomatic synapse
True
(Soma = Perikaryon=Cell Body)
79
Efferent neurons transmit impulses to the CNS
False
(Afferent)
80
Inhibitory post synaptic potentials can cause membrane hyperpolarization
True
81
Dendrites are sensory in nature
True
82
Glial cells are found in the CNS and PNS both
True
83
Endo, peri and epineurium all have epithelium-like properties
True
84
Blood vessels that enter the nerve tissue are covered by dura mater.
False
(Arachnoid)
85
The dorsal horn of the spinal cord is sensory in nature
True
86
Since Axon and Dentrites interact via neurotransmitters, vesicles of neurotransmitters are also found in the dendritic spines
True
87
The channels opens up upon binding to a neurotransmitter is a kind of ligand gated channel
True
88
Oligodendrocytes insulate the CNS axons but not by forming myelin sheath like the Schwann Cells
False
89
Anaxonic neurons produce multiple action potentials at once
False
(Since they lack dendrites, they do not produce action potentials)
90
Mylination neurons transducer the nerve impulse _________.
A. Slower
B. Faster
C. Same Speed as non-myelinated
Faster
91
Name the parts of the neuron that recieves impulses from other neurons.
A. Dendrite
B. Cell Body
C. Axon
D. Myelin Sheath
A. Dendrite
92
What do glial cells do?
A. Support and protect neurons
B. Control voluntary movement
C. Control language expression
D. Control language reception
A. Support and Protect Neurons
93
Which are the most abundant glial cells?
A. Oligodendrocytes
B. Astrocytes
C. Microglia
D. Ependymal Cells
B. Astrocytes
94
Which glial cells can help form the BBB?
A. Oligodendrocytes
B. Ependymal Cells
C. Astrocytes
D. Peritalen Cells
C. Astrocytes
95
What do Schwann cells do?
A. Myelinate in the CNS
B. Myelinate in the PNS
C. Line the ventricles and produce CSF
D. Remove neurotransmitters from the synaptic environment
B. Myelinate in the PNS
96
Which glial cells wrap around the axons of neurons within the CNS?
A. Ependymal cells
B. Oligodendrocytes
C. Schwann Cells
D. Satellite Cells
B. Oligodendrocytes
97
Explain the different components of an axon?
-Axon Hillock: Point at which an axon emerges from cell body
-Axolemma: Plasma membrane of the axon
-Axoplasm: Contents of the axolemma
98
What is the main function of an axon?
Generating a nerve impulse/conduct it to a postsynaptic neuron of an effector cell
99
Actin is a motor protein (True/False)
False
100
Actin and myosin are the basic contractile proteins of all muscle cells
True
101
The cardiac muscle has cellular junctional complexes in the intercalated discs
True
102
Cardiac muscle cells do not have dense bodies
True
(Smooth muscles have dense bodies)
103
The thick filament is associated with troponin and tropomyosin proteins that regulate muscle contraction in response to a nerve stimulus
False
104
When the sarcomere contracts the I-Band and H-zone temporarily disappears
True
105
Skeletal muscle cell/fiber is multinucleated
True
106
The A-Band of the sarcomere is made of Myosin
True
107
Although smooth muscle contraction is involuntary, it is very strong-all or none
False
(Cardiac muscle is involuntary, strong and all or none)
108
Actin and myosin are involved in cytokinesis, separating cells during cell division
True
109
The T-Tubules are inward tubular extensions of the Sarcolemma
True
110
Cardiac muscle is found in all those organs that are either the heart or associated to the heart
False
(Only the heart itself)
111
Rough ER in the sarcoplasmic reticulum that stores Ca++ in muscle cells
False
112
Numerous fascicles together make a skeletal muscle fiber
False
113
A sarcomere is the contractile unit of a muscle
True
114
Satellite cells are formed as a result of skeletal muscle damage
False
115
F-actin is a single long strand of G-actin that once assembled is very stable
False
116
The TnC subunit of Troponin is responsible for Ca++ binding
True
117
Blood vessels are found in all three —mysium layers of skeletal muscle
True
118
A sarcomere comprises of two A bands and one I band
False
(2 I-Bands and one A-Band)
119
Because they all have actin and myosin, all muscles are striated
False
(Smooth muscle is not striated and cardiac muscle is only striated because of intercalated discs)
120
The Sarcolemma is the plasmalemma of the muscle cell
True
121
The contraction and relaxation of muscles is dependent on ATP availability and not Ca
False
(They are dependent on both)
122
Epimysium is the connective tissue layer covering the muscle body just under the deep fascia
True
123
Actin is a _________ protein and myosin is a _________ protein
Cytoskeletal; motor
124
What proteins are associated with the thick and thin filaments?
-Thick filament: Myosin
-Thin Filament: Actin
125
What are the purposes of tropomyosin and troponin?
-Tropomyosin: Keeps myosin-binding sites covered when not in action
-Troponin: Has three subunits in control of binding
A. TNT: Binds to tropomyosin
B. TnC: Binds to Ca++
C. TnI: Actin and myosin interactions
126
What is the difference when it comes to fibers in skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle?
-Skeletal: Multinucleated (one cell)
-Cardiac: Many mononucleated cells attached end to end (via intercalated discs)
-Smooth: Many fusiform/spindle shaped (mononucleted) cells bound to one another via cell junctions
127
Name the efferent innervation and contraction type of the three types of muscle?
-Skeletal muscle: Voluntary/All-or-None
-Cardiac Muscle: Autonomous/All-or-None
-Smooth Muscle: Autonomous/Slow Steady Partial Contraction
128
T-Tubules extend down from the Sarcolemma, surround the myofibrils around the junction of the _______ and ________
I and A Bands
129
What are the two components of the triad?
2 sER cisternae/T-Tubule in the middle
130
Where are the three types of muscles found in the body?
-Skeletal: Skeletal muscle, tongue, eyes, diaphragm
-Cardiac: Heart Only
-Smooth: Walls of hollow organs and arector pilli
131
What is a difference between sER and rER and what is sERs function?
-Prescence of ribosomes: sER has none
-sER: more tubular and saccular
-Function: Storage of Ca+ in skeletal and cardiac muscle
132
Name the cellular organelles of a muscle cell
-Sarcoplasm: Cytoplasm of a muscle cell
-Sarcoplasmic reticulum: sER found here
-Sarcolemma: Plasma membrane of the muscle cell
133
Name the different CT layers that surround skeletal muscle
Epimysium: Dense layer of CT that covers the whole muscle (Coll T1, T3, Fibroblasts)
-Perimysium: Dense layer of CT that covers each fascicle
-Endomysium: Covers each muscle cell fiber
134
All bone cells are multinucleated
False
(Osteoblasts: Mononucleated/Osteoclasts: Multinucleated)
135
Hyaline Cartilage is the most common type of cartilage in the body
True
136
Fibrocartilage also contains collagen type 1 in its matrix
True
137
Hemotapoiesis takes place in the Fibrocartilage
False
138
Interritorial matrix is low in collagen fibers, high in tropocollagen molecules
False
139
Haversian canals contain both blood vessels and nerves
True
140
Interstitial Lamellae are older concentric Lamellae after bone remodeling
True
141
Osteoclasts originate from monocytes
True
142
Canaliculi help transport nutrients from one concentric Lamellae to another
True
143
Costal cartilages are a type of elastic cartilage
False
144
Periosteum and Endosteum, both supply psteoprogenitor cells
True
145
Bone fracture healing involves formation of Fibrocartilage and not hyaline cartilage
False
146
Cartilage is highly vascular in nature
False
147
Osteocytes reside in Howship’s lacunae until they die
False
148
Collagen type 1 is the most common type of collagen in cartilage
False
(Collagen T2)
149
Perichondirum causes Appositional growth in the cartilage
True
150
Since compact bone is dense, it is easier to release minerals from it when the body needs
False
151
The bone marrow is found in the spaces of cancellous bone
True
152
Perichondrium is only found around hyaline (except Articular) and elastic cartilages
True
153
Calcium hydroxyapatite is the primary bone mineral
True
154
Hyaline cartilage forms the fetal skeleton scaffold during development
True
155
Endochondral ossification involves a stage of hyaline cartilage scaffold
True
156
Sharpey’s fibers are found under the Endosteum and line the marrow cavity
False
157
The smallest structural unit of the spongy bone is a trabecula
False
(Spiculi)
158
Name examples of hyaline cartilage in the body
-Hyaline: Articular surfaces (Diarthrosis), Epiphyseal plate, wall of trachea and bronchi, ventral ends of ribs, endochondral ossification, Cartilage of the larynx
159
What are the differences between elastic cartilage and Fibrocartilage?
1. Fibrous components
-Elastic: Type 2 collagen and elastic fibers
-Fibrocartilage: Type 1 and 2 collagen
2. Location of Cartilage
-Elastic: Auditory canal, ear pinna and epiglottis
-Fibrocartilage: Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis and meniscus
3. Perichondrium
-Elastic: Present (Appositional growth)
-Fibrocartilage: Absent (Interstitial Growth)
4. Chondroblast Arrangement
-Elastic: Arranged in clusters
-Fibrocartilage: Arranged in rows
160
Differences between interstitial and Appositional growth
1. Types of Cartilage
-Interstitial: Fibrocartilage
-Appositional: Hyaline and Elastic
2. Duration
-Interstitial: Early in life
-Appositional: Life long
3. Types of Collagen
-Interstitial: Type 1 and type 2
-Appositional: Type 2
161
Differences between compact and cancellous bone?
1. Unit
-Compact: Osteon/Haversian Systems
-Cancellous: Trabecula and spicules
2. Weight
-Compact: Heavier
-Cancellous: Lighter
3. Accessibility of minerals
-Compact: Haversian canals supply blood to caniculi
-Cancellous: Hollow spaces make it accessible for blood vessels bone matrix/release phosphorous and calcium quickly
4. Canaliculi
-Compact: Present
-Cancellous: Absent
162
Differences between osteoblasts and osteoclasts
1. Function:
-Osteoblasts: Bone forming
-Osteoclasts: Maintenence, repair and removal of bone
2. Nucelus
-Osteoblasts: Mononucleated
-Osteoclasts: Multinucleated
3. Origin
-Osteoblasts: Periosteum/mesenchyme
-Osteoclasts: Monocytes
3. Lacuna
-Osteoblasts: No lacuna
-Osteoclasts: Howship’s Lacuna
163
Organic and inorganic components of the bone matrix
-Organic: Type I collagen, proteglycans, glycoproteins
-Inorganic: Calcium hydroxyapatite, bicarbonate, citrate, magnesium, sodium, calcium phosphate, water
164
What are the three different types of lamellae
Interstitial, circumferential, concentric
165
What is the difference between periosteum and Endosteum?
Periosteum: Outer later of collagen fibers/fibroblasts, osteoprogenitor cells are found deep, also contains Sharpey’s fibers
Endosteum: Found lining the marrow cavity, it only has a single layer of osteoprogenitor cells and connective tissue
166
What is the difference between intramembranous and endochondral ossification
-Intramembranous ossification: Quicker, mesenchymal tissue differentiates into osteoblasts, not common
-Endochondral ossification: Slower, messenchymal tissue differentiates into chondroblasts
167
Gap Junctions play an important roles in Juxtacrine signalling where cell has to be in direct physical contact to interact/exchange
True
168
Holocrine secretion involves breakdown of the cells of the gland that secretes
True
169
Goblet cells are tall like the surrounding columnar cells and can reach the free surface of the epithelium
True
170
Zonula Occludens are also called as connexons
False
171
Stratified cuboidal epithelium is generally only two layers in thickness
True
172
Simple squamous epithelium of the heart is called endothelium
True
173
Kinociliar are non-motile structures meant for binding to odorants in the olfactory epithelium
False
174
Claudia proteins forms the ZO junction
True
175
Stereocilia can carry our water/liquid absorption
True
176
The non-keratinized epithelial cells are dead cells
False
177
Cells of the simple cuboidal epithelium that are found in renal tubules that carry urine, are connected to each other by excess cell junctions
True
178
Epithelium is a free flow layer because it is highly permeable
False
179
Transitional epithelium is also called mesothelium
False
180
The web of actin that supports the microvilli is called as Terminal Bar
False
181
Microvilli and cilia both are supported by actin protein
False
182
Microvilli are covered with glycocalyx but kinocilia are not
True
183
In a pseudostratified columnar epithelium, all cells are attached to the basement membrane
True
184
Collectively, all cell junctions are called Terminal web
False
185
Simple squamous epithelium makes a really good filtration barrier in the kidney filtration units
True
186
Transitional epithelium is found in the stomach which is distended when you consume food filling the stomach lumen
False
187
Epithelium is the only tissue without a basement membrane
False
188
Eccrine secretion involves chunks/parts of the cell breaking off to be part of the secretion
False
189
Macula adherens is also called desmosomes
True
190
Epithelium can carry out absorption and secretions
True
191
Epithelial tissue are of lining and glandular types
True
192
Epithelial tissues has blood vasculature that supplies it with nutrients
False
193
Goblet cells are secretory in nature
True
194
Terminal web is made of actin protein
True
195
Hemidesmosomes are partial zonula adherens junctions
False
196
Blood vessels have a lining epithelium of simple columnar type
False
197
Classifications of epithelial membrane
1. Number of layers
-Simple
-Stratified
2. Shape of cells
-Squamous
-Cuboidal
-Columnar
198
Types of lining epithelia
-Simple: All cells contact basement membrane/reach free surface
-Pseudostratified: All cells touch basement membrane but not all reach free surface
-Stratified: Basal layer touches basement membrane but not all cells reach free surface
-Transitional: Surface cells change between squamous and cuboidal shapes
199
Structures at apical, lateral and basilar surfaces surface
-Apical: Microvilli, kinocilia, sterocilia
-Lateral: Tight junction, zonula adherens, and desmosome
-Basal: Hemidesmosome and basal Lamina
200
What makes up the terminal bar
Cell Junction and Gap Junction
201
What are the three components of the junctional complex
-Zonula occludens (tight junction)-Claudin
-Zonula adherens (adhering belt)
-Macula adherens (desmosomes)
202
Each connexon of a gap junction is made up of six connexins
True
203
Which glandular epithelium possesses ducts?
Exorcrine Gland
(Endocrine does not)
204
Three types of secretion
-Holocrine: Disintegrates cell contents into new cell
-Merocine: secretes intact cell (most common)
-Apocine: Cell is pinched off
205
Types of lamellae
-Interstitial: Remnant of old osteons
-Concentric: Lamellae part of an active existing osteon
-Circumferential: Found closer to the periosteum
