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Physiology 2 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the phases and inflection points for whole animal growth described by sigmoidal growth curves?

A

Self-accelerating phase, point of inflection, self-decelerating/inhibiting phase, asymptote.

Asymptote refers to the mature body weight where food intake matches requirements.

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2
Q

What is the difference between Physiological and Chronological age of an animal?

A

Chronological age refers to absolute time units; Physiological age refers to specific physical or chemical stages of maturity.

Physiological age allows comparison across different animals, which may reach similar stages at different chronological ages.

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3
Q

What factors can influence growth and alter the growth curve?

A
  • Nutrition
  • Disease
  • Stress
  • Activity level

Each factor can impact the rate and pattern of growth in animals.

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4
Q

How is cumulative growth defined?

A

Change in weight over time.

Cumulative growth reflects the total weight gain across a specified duration.

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5
Q

What is the formula for Allometric growth?

A

Y = ax^b

In this equation, ‘Y’ represents the growth of a body part, ‘a’ is a constant, ‘x’ is the body size, and ‘b’ is the slope of the line.

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6
Q

What does the slope ‘b’ in the Allometric growth model represent?

A

The rate of growth of different tissues/body parts relative to the whole body.

A higher ‘b’ indicates faster growth of certain tissues compared to others.

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7
Q

Describe John Hammond’s two important observations about the components of growth.

A
  • Body components that are physiologically more important develop first (e.g., nerve, bone, muscle, fat).
  • Extremities complete their development first.

This reflects the prioritization of growth in different body parts during development.

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8
Q

What is the significance of the point of inflection in growth curves?

A

It indicates the maximum growth rate before growth begins to decelerate.

Identifying this point helps in understanding growth patterns and timing.

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9
Q

What is relative growth?

A

Growth in relation to total body size, calculated as (InY2 - InY1) / (t2 - t1).

This measure helps assess how growth rates change over time relative to overall body size.

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10
Q

What is isometric growth?

A

Growing at a similar rate as the whole body.

In isometric growth, proportions of body parts remain constant relative to each other.

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11
Q

What changes occur in the composition of muscle, adipose, and connective tissue with age?

A
  • Muscle: protein increases, water decreases.
  • Adipose: protein decreases, water decreases.
  • Connective tissue: absolute increases, elastin decreases.

These changes reflect the dynamics of tissue development and aging.

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12
Q

True or False: Allometric growth works equally well for all tissues.

A

False

Allometric growth can predict growth well for some tissues but not for others, such as fat.

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13
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ phase of growth is characterized by a decreasing rate of growth as the animal approaches mature weight.

A

self-decelerating/inhibiting

This phase reflects the body’s adjustment as it nears its mature size.

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14
Q

What is the primary focus of Allometric growth studies?

A

How body parts change in size as an animal develops.

This includes examining the proportional relationships between different tissues and the overall body size.

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15
Q

What controls growth phenotypes in animals?

A

Interactions between an animal’s genotype and environment

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16
Q

What is the genetic difference between species, breeds, sex, and genetically modified organisms?

A

Species: organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring; breeds: variations within a species; sex: male, female, castrated male; genetically modified organisms: organisms with an edited genome affecting gene expression

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17
Q

Define heredity.

A

The process of passing along genes from one generation to the next

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18
Q

What is evolution?

A

How genetic differences arise through selection of mutations in genes

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19
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The unique set of genes that an animal possesses in its genome

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20
Q

What is heritability?

A

The ability of an animal to pass a particular trait to the next generation

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21
Q

What are the heritability score ranges?

A
  • H > 0.5: highly heritable trait
  • 0.2 < H < 0.5: moderately heritable trait
  • H < 0.2: low heritable trait
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22
Q

How do species evolve?

A

Through natural selection and man-made selection for desirable traits

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23
Q

Describe the muscle distribution differences between wild ruminants and domestic cattle.

A

Wild ruminants have more muscle in hind legs for speed; domestic cattle have more muscle in abdominal muscles for rumination

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24
Q

How does fat distribution differ between cattle and pigs?

A
  • Cattle: intermuscular fat > subcutaneous fat
  • Pigs: subcutaneous fat < intermuscular fat
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25
Why did different breeds develop within domestic animal species?
Due to selection pressures placed on different traits by animal breeders
26
What defines large and small framed cattle breeds?
* Large framed: heavier weights, late maturing * Small framed: smaller weights, early maturing
27
What are frame scores used for?
To determine the size of an individual animal
28
How does selection for muscle relate to milk production in cattle?
Selection for muscle is inversely related to milk production
29
What characterizes growth patterns between male, female, and castrated animals?
* Males: more muscle in forequarter * Females: more muscle in pelvic limb and abdominal wall * Castrates: intermediate muscle development
30
What factors affect bone development between sexes?
Estrogen promotes epiphyseal closure, making females shorter; androgens increase periosteal growth in males
31
What are essential nutrients for growth?
* Amino acids * Carbohydrates * Vitamins * Minerals
32
What is energy balance?
The balance between energy consumed and energy used for maintenance, growth, and production
33
What is compensatory growth?
Growth that occurs after a period of nutritional stress
34
What does protein quality refer to?
The balance and bioavailability of essential amino acids in a foodstuff
35
How does energy affect growth of different tissues?
Energy is used for lean/muscle gain until optimal energy is reached, after which it is converted to fat
36
What impact do microbes have on animal growth?
Microbes negatively affect growth by diverting nutrients and energy needed for immune response
37
Why are antibiotics no longer widely used in livestock?
Due to consumer concern about antibiotic resistance and modern farming practices
38
What are some important stressors faced by livestock?
* Transportation * Temperature * Social group changes * Lack of feed or water
39
What does SSF housing do for livestock?
Alleviates social stress by keeping animals in a group from weaning to slaughter
40
What are the energy sources for physical activity?
* Body fat * Muscle glycogen * Liver glycogen
41
What is the effect of exercise on growth hormone and IGF-1 secretion?
Both resistance and endurance exercise can induce GH and IGF-1 secretion
42
Fill in the blank: The unique set of genes that an animal possesses is called its _______.
genotype
43
True or False: Muscle development differs between male, female, and castrated animals.
True
44
What are the two main types of immune responses?
Innate and Adaptive ## Footnote Innate is an early response with broad specificity, while Adaptive matures upon exposure to an antigen and has memory.
45
What cells are involved in the Innate immune response?
Granulocytes, macrophages, mast cells ## Footnote These are part of the innate immune system.
46
What cells are involved in the Adaptive immune response?
B cells and T cells ## Footnote These cells mature and respond to specific antigens.
47
What is hematopoiesis?
The process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow ## Footnote It produces myeloid stem cells for innate immune cells and lymphoid stem cells for adaptive immune cells.
48
Where do B cells mature in mammals?
Bone marrow ## Footnote B cells are lymphocytes that mature in the central lymphoid organs.
49
What is the role of the Thymus in T cell development?
Maturation of T lymphocytes occurs in the Thymus ## Footnote Immature T cells, or thymocytes, undergo selection in the thymus.
50
What are the three types of T cells?
* Helper T cells * Cytotoxic T cells * Regulatory T cells ## Footnote Helper T cells activate other immune cells, Cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells, and Regulatory T cells suppress the immune response.
51
What is humoral immunity?
B lymphocytes detect extracellular microbes and secrete antibodies ## Footnote This process blocks infections and eliminates extracellular microbes.
52
What is cell-mediated immunity?
Helper T lymphocytes activate macrophages to kill phagocytosed microbes ## Footnote Cytotoxic T lymphocytes kill infected cells.
53
Where do immune responses occur?
Lymph nodes and spleen ## Footnote Lymph nodes contain B and T cells, while the spleen samples blood for foreign invaders.
54
What is the function of the spleen's red pulp?
Destruction of old red blood cells ## Footnote The spleen provides a location rich in immune cells.
55
What is the cutaneous immune system?
A network of cells protecting the body from infections and harmful substances ## Footnote It acts as the first line of defense against external threats.
56
What are Peyer's patches?
Collections of lymphatic tissue in the small intestine ## Footnote They monitor intestinal contents for pathogens.
57
Define immunogenicity.
The ability of a molecule to induce an immune response ## Footnote Factors influencing immunogenicity include foreignness and complexity.
58
What is an epitope?
The specific part of an antigen that binds to an antibody or T cell receptor ## Footnote Epitopes can be linear or conformational.
59
What is the primary function of antibodies?
To bind to antigens and neutralize them ## Footnote Antibodies can also trigger phagocytosis and activate the complement system.
60
What are the two broad forms of antibodies?
* Membrane-bound * Secreted soluble form ## Footnote Antibodies are produced by B lymphocytes/plasma cells.
61
What is affinity maturation?
Somatic mutations in the variable region that increase binding affinity ## Footnote This process enhances the immune response.
62
What is the difference between monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies?
* Monoclonal: derived from a single clone of B cells * Polyclonal: derived from multiple B-cell clones . ## Footnote Monoclonal antibodies recognize a single epitope, while polyclonal recognize multiple epitopes.
63
What is the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)?
A group of proteins that present peptide fragments to T cells ## Footnote MHC class I presents to CD8 T cells, while MHC class II presents to CD4 T cells.
64
What is the role of MHC in transplantation?
MHC proteins determine tissue compatibility and immune rejection ## Footnote MHC mismatches can lead to rejection of transplanted tissues.
65
What is the difference between active and passive immunity?
* Active: body develops an immune response with memory * Passive: transfer of antibodies or lymphocytes without memory ## Footnote Active immunity is developed by exposure, while passive immunity is provided.
66
What are the characteristics of IgG?
Most abundant antibody in blood and extracellular fluid ## Footnote IgG is involved in opsonization and neutralization of pathogens.
67
What is the hinge region of an antibody?
A flexible area between heavy chains allowing movement ## Footnote This flexibility varies between different antibody isotypes.

Physiology 2 (14 decks)

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