Histology Cameron McCloskey Flashcards
(157 cards)
1
Q
The plasmalemma is known by which other name?
A
Cell membrane
2
Q
Many proteins are anchored into the cell membrane, what functions may they have?
A
- Receptors
- Enzymes
- Channels
- Transporters
3
Q
What are the three types of filaments that make up the cytoskeleton of a cell?
A
- Microfilaments
- Intermediate filaments
- Microtubules
4
Q
What are the smallest type of filaments that make up the cytoskeleton?
A
Microfilaments
(approx 7nm diameter)
5
Q
Microfilaments are composed of what?
A
Actin
6
Q
There are more than 50 classes of intermediate filaments, what can each class give an indication of?
A
Origin of the cell in the body
(this can help when locating tumours)
7
Q
What are microtubules composed of?
A
Alpha and beta tubulin subunits
8
Q
Which two proteins can use microtubules as a transport network and which direction does each travel?
A
- Kinesin - An ATPase that transports compounds towards the cell periphery
- Dynein - An ATPase that transports compounds towards the cell centre
9
Q
The nucleus is surrounded by an _______ and ________ membrane
A
Inner and outer
10
Q
The outer membrane of the nucleus shares a common border with what?
A
The rough endoplasmic reticulum
11
Q
What is between the inner and outer nuclear membranes?
A
Perinuclear cisterna
The space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes is also called the perinuclear space. The perinuclear space (PNS) is joined with the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
12
Q
There are three types of RNA, which two are transcribed and which is transcribed in the nucleolus
A
Nucleus - mRNA, tRNA
Nucleolus - rRNA
13
Q
The nucleus contains two states of DNA, what are these states?
A
- Heterochromatin - DNA condensed and not undergoing transcription
- Euchromatin - DNA untwisted and undergoing transcription
14
Q
Where are ribosomes formed?
A
Nucleolus
15
Q
What two subunits make up a ribosome?
A
- Small subunit - binds to mRNA
- Large subunit - catalyses formation of peptide bonds
16
Q
What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum?
A
- Rough
- Smooth
17
Q
What are polysomes?
A
Clusters of free ribosomes in the cytoplasm surrounding mRNA which is being transcribed
18
Q
What is the role of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
A
Processing proteins after passage through the rough endoplasmic reticulum and also for the synthesis of lipids
19
Q
What is the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
A
The synthesis of membrane bound proteins or secretions.
It is also the site of glycoprotein formation
20
Q
What is the role of the golgi apparatus كولجي ا برادس?
A
The pakaging and processing of proteins for export to their destinations
21
Q
The golgi apparatus is made up of many flattened sacs resembling plates, what is each sac called?
A
A Cisterna
22
Q
How do proteins arrive at the golgi apparatus?
A
In transport vesicles from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
23
Q
What is the inner membrane of mitochondria called?
A
The cristae
This is folded to increase surface area
24
Q
DNA can be found in which two locations within a cell?
A
- Nucleus
- Mitochondria - they have their own DNA
25
Which type of muscle will have many mitochondria and which type will have few?
* Many mitochondria - Slow twitch muscle - generally aerobic
* Few mitochondria - fast twitch muscle - generally anaerobic
26
What are intercellular junctions?
Structures specilaised to join cells into groups to form a functional unit
27
Where are intercellular junctions most prominent?
Epithelial cells
28
What are the three types of intercellular junctions?
1. Occluding اوكلودين(tight junctions) mostly at the apical area
2. Anchoring
3. Communicating
29
Occluding junctions can have which other name?
Tight junctions
| (or zonula occludens)
30
What do occluding junctions function to do?
Link cells together to form a diffusion barrier
31
What are the three types of anchoring intercellular junctions? AND WHAT IS FUNCTION OF EACH ?
1. Adherent : link submembrane actin bundles of adjacent cells via cadherin molecules
2. Desmosomes: link submembrane intermediate filaments of adjacent cells l
3. Hemidesmosomes: link submembrane intermediate filaments of cells to extacellular matrix through transmembrane proteins
32
Describe the function of anchoring adherent intercellular junctions
Actin in the cytoplasm is used to link adjacent cells together
Actin is bound to cadherin - a transmembrane protein which acts as an adhesive linking cells together
33
Describe the function of anchoring desmosome intercellular junctions
Intermediate filaments are used to join cells as they can bind with transmembrane proteins.
This can provide stablity in the skin
34
Describe the function of anchoring hemidesmosome intercellular junctions
link submembrane intermediate filaments of cells to extacellular matrix through transmembrane proteins
35
What is a junctional complex?
This is when many types of junctions are used in close proximity
This is common in epithelial cells
36
Communicating junctions have what other name?
Gap junctions
37
What are communicating junctions composed of?
A circular patch with many pores created by **connexin proteins** which make direct channels between cells
38
Communicating junctions allow for what between connected cells?
Selective diffusion and transfer of certain molecules
39
Communicating junctions are common in which tissue types?
* Smooth muscle
* Cardiac muscle (spread of excitation)
* Epithelial cells
40
There are 3 main ways in which substances can be transported across a membrane, what are these?
* Diffusion
* Protein pumps/channels
* Endo/exocytosis using vesicles (vesicular transport)
41
During endocytosis, material in the ___________ space can be engulfed by the cell forming an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Extracellular
Endosome
Often receptor mediated
42
What is it called when a phagosome and lysome fuse?
A phagolysosome
43
When tissue is prepared for microscopy which chemical may be used to cross link proteins and maintain structure?
Formalin
44
What is added to tissues to give it structure before it is used for microscopy?
Wax
45
What is a common dye used to allow differentiation in different cell parts?
"H & E"
* Haematoxylin (H) - a basic dye which binds to acidic molecules such as DNA or ribsomes causing a purple colour
* Eosin (E) - an acidic dye which binds to basic molecules such as cytoplasmic proteins causing a pinkish colour
46
What are the four basic tissue types?
1. Epithelium
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
47
What is the basal lamina?
The extracellular matrix of components at the basal (underside) surface of epithelial cells.
48
Which type of cells are not vascularised and how do they aquire nutrients?
Epithelial cells
They acquire nutrients via diffusion from the basal lamina
49
What are the different epithelial cell shapes?
* Squamous (flat)
* Cuboidal (cube shaped)
* Columnar (cuboidal - tall and thin)
50
What are the names of epithelia based on the number of layers?
* One - simple
* Two or more - stratified
* Multiple layers - pseudostratified (all cells in contact with the basal lamina)
51
What are the two types of epithelial gland?
1. Endocrine (ductless) - product secreted towards the basal end of the epithelium and distributed into the vascular system - lots of capillaries will surround the glands
2. Exocrine (ducted) - product secreted upwards towards the apical end of an epithelial cell
52
What are the three subtypes of connective tissue?
1. Soft connective tissue
2. Hard connective tissue
3. Blood and lymph
53
What are fibroblasts?
Cells that are widely distributed in the extracellular matrix helping to maitain it
54
What are chrondrocytes?
**cells responsible for cartilage formation**,
55
Within the extracellular matrix there is ground substance, what is this?
A large space containing a gel-like substance made of huge polysaccharide molecules called glycosaminoglycan which are mostly bound to protein cores to form glycoproteins
56
What are the two types of soft connective tissue?
1. Dense regular - densely pack collagen fibres in ordered alignment
2. Dense irregular - densely packed collagen fibres running in many directions which resists breakage
57
What allows cartilage to be flexible?
The ground substance in cartilage is very hydrated allowing for this type of flexible stucture
58
How does cartilage receive nutrients since it is not vascularised?
Diffusion through its matrix
59
What are the three types of cartilage?
1. Hyaline
2. Elastic
3. Fibrocartilage
60
What are the two types of bone which are distinct to the naked eye?
1. Cortical bone - outer shell composing the shaft (diaphysis)
2. Cancellous (trabecular) bone - inside of bone, an interconnected network of bone fragments that contains small holes and hollow sections
61
What are osteocytes?
Bone cells
62
What are the three major types of muscle tissues?
1. Smooth (involuntary)
2. Skeletal (voluntary)
3. Cardiac
63
What causes skeletal muscle striations?
The overlapping of actin and myosin filaments
64
What joins cardiac muscle cells together?
Intercalated discs
(gap junctions are common between cells)
65
Neurones in the CNS and PNS have a coating around them, what is this coating called in each area?
1. CNS - Meniges
2. PNS - Epineurium
66
Depending on the way the cell body is attached, neurones fall into which three categories?
1. Unipolar - cell body attached in one place
2. Bipolar - cell body attached in two places
3. Multipolar - cell body attached in many places
67
What are the three types of glia?
1. Astrocytes
2. Oligodendrocytes
3. Microglia
68
What is the function of astrocytes?
Provide support and contribute to ion transport
They also play a role in tissue repair after damage and aid by producing scar tissue by secreting the contents of their extracellular matrix
69
What is the role of oligdendrocytes?
To produce myelin
70
Microglia have what function?
To provide immune surveillance
71
What is the principle glia of the PNS and what is its function?
Schwann cells
Produce myelin and support the axons
72
Striated ducts are present in salivary ducts, what is their function?
They actively pump salt ions out of saliva ensure saliva remains hypotonic to red blood cells preventing water from inside red blood cells flowing into the saliva
73
What are the four layers of the digestive tract outwards from the lumen?
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis externa
4. Serosa
74
What is the mucosa in the digestive tract composed of?
* Epithelium - sits on the basal lamina
* Lamina propria - loose connective tissue
* Muscularis mucosae - thin layer of smooth muscle
75
What is the submucosa in the digestive tract composed of?
Loose connective tissue
76
What is the muscularis externa composed of in the GI tract?
Two thick layers of smooth muscle
* Inner circular layer
* Outer longitudinal layer
77
What is the serosa in the GI tract composed of?
Connective tissue
(can suspend or attach the digestive tract to other organs)
78
The outer longitudinal layer of muscle in the muscularis externa within the GI tract is not continuous, but instead found in 3 strips called what?
Teniae coli
79
What is the enteric nervous system?
The nervous system of the digestive tract allowing it to function independently with input from the autonomic nervous system
80
Within the liver, what comprised a portal triad?
1. Hepatic portal vein
2. Hepatic artery
3. Bile duct
4.
81
What does the exocrine pancrease function to do?
Produce digestive juices containing proteases and other breakdown enzymes as well as lipases and nucleases
82
What is the function of the endocrine pancreas?
It is covered in many capillaries (islets of Langerhans) which produce hormones insulin and others to regulate blood sugar levels
83
What percentage of blood is composed of cells?
45%
84
What percentage of the cells within blood are red blood cells are what percenatge are white blood cells?
Red - 99%
White - 1%
85
What are the five main types of lymphocytes found in blood?
1. Neutrophils
2. Lymphocytes
3. Monocytes
4. Basophils
5. Eosinophils
86
Arteries are made up of what three layers?
1. Tunica intima
2. Tunica media
3. Tunica adventitia
87
In artery walls, the tunica media and tunica adventitia are separated by what type of membrane?
External elastic membrane
88
The walls of capillaries are composed of what?
only tunic intima which compose of Endothelial cells and a basal lamina
89
Why do veins have a wider lumen when compared with arteries?
They carry blood at a lower pressure
90
What factors aid the movement of lymph around the body?(3)
1. Smooth muscle in the walls of the body
2. Hydrostatic pressure
3. Compression of vessels by skeletal muscle contraction (milking )
91
Elastic arteries are so thick-walled that they require have their own blood supply, which vessels supply there arteries?
Vaso vasorum arteries
92
A capillary bed is made up of a network of what?
* Metarterioles
* Throughfare channels
* Capillaries
* Precapillary sphincters
93
What are pericytes?
Cells that surround the basal lamina or capillary endothelial cells
They have stem cell properties yet mostly aid contraction
94
What are the three types of capillaries?
1. Continuous
2. Fenestrated
3. Sinusoidal
95
Describe continuous capillaries
They are found inmuscle, nerve, lung and skin tissue
They are the least permeable of all capillaries and have intact walls
96
Describe fenestrated capillaries
They have small pores in their walls allow larger molecules and proteins to move from your blood into organs and glands.
Commonly found in the gut mucosa, endocrine glands and the kidney
97
Describe sinusoidal capillaries? found in (3)?
They have large gaps are are discontinuous
They are found in the liver, spleen and bone marrow
98
What do capillary networks drain into?
Post-capillary venules
99
At which point is a capillary termed a venule?
As soon as there is smooth muscle in the walls
100
Why do the largest veins have a thich layer of tunica adventitia?
It aids in the support of a physically larger structure
101
What two different classes of white cells are found in the blood?
1. Granulocytes
2. Agranulocytes
102
What is the average lifespan of a red blood cell?
120 days
103
Old red blood cells are removed from circulation by which two organs?
Liver and spleen
104
What is the most abundent white cell in the blood?
Neutrophil
105
Eosinophils stain well with what dye?
Eosin (a red acidic dye)
106
Basophils stain well with which dye?
Basic dyes
| (methylene blue)
107
Where does erythrocyte formation firstly occur?
Yolk sac during embryonic development
| (after around 3 weeks of gestation)
108
At birth, what area of the body becomes the area of red blood cell formation?
Bone marrow
In adulthood only vertebrae, ribs, skull and proximal femurs retain haemopoiesis - the ability to produce red blood cells
109
What is an erythrocyte termed after RNA granules appear in its cytoplasm?
Reticulocyte
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells that still contain some organelles and are capable of producing hemoglobin.
110
Describe the steps in the pathway of erythrocyte development
1. Proerythroblast
2. Basophilic erythroblast (early normoblast)
3. Polychromatic erythroblast (intermediate normoblast)
4. Orthochromatic erythroblast (late normoblast)
5. Reticulocyte erythroblast
111
What are megakaryocytes?
Huge cells responsible for platelet formation
Plateletes will bud off from small sections of the cytoplasm
112
What happens to a megakaryocyte after many platelets have been produced from it?
It will undergo apoptosis
113
SMOOTH muscles are voluntary true or false?
FLASE
SKELTAL MUSCLES are voluntary
smooth muscles can be refer to as involuntary or visceral muscles
114
name the blood vessels from the arterioles to veins
* Arterioles
* elastic arteries
* Muscular arteries
* Arterioles (can also go to terminal arteriols)
* Metarterioles
* Capillary
* Venules (where walls start to have smooth muscle cells)
* Post capillary venule
* Veins
115
Neutrophils histology
single multi-loped nucleus
granulocytes
pale red and blue cytoplasmic granulocytes which contain lysozome and myeloperoxidase
* Phagocytes (when activated)
116
Eosinophils
bi-loped nucleus
stain red with acidic granules
Granules contain hydrolytic enzymes -inflammation
* involve in inflammation
117
Basophils
Bi-lobed nucleus
has lots of dark purple stained cytoplasmic granules take up the entire cell
Basic granules that stain purple/blue,
* Effector cells in allergic reactions
118
Monocytes
Agranules
Kidney shape nucleus
cytoplasm is faintly stained blue
* Precursors of tissue macrophages (phagocytes)
119
Lymphocytes
largely spherical nucleus and basophilic (blue) cytoplasm
Agranule
outer rim faint blue stained
* **B cells:** give rise to antibody secreting plasma cells
* **T cells:** differentiate in thymus, many defensive functions
120
What are the 3 layers of a vein?
**The tunica intima, the tunica media and the tunica adventitia**. The innermost layer of the vein is the tunica intima. This layer consists of flat epithelial cells.
121
What are the three categories of epithelium cells ?
(1) the number of layers of cells making up the tissue,
(2) by the cell shape,
(3) by any surface modifications.
122
different type of epithelium cells according to number of layer ?
* If the epithelium consists of a single layer of cells, it is termed **simple**. Simple epithelia are typically found where absorption, secretion and filtration need to occur, due to the thin barrier they create.
* If the epithelium consists of multiple layers of cells, it is termed **stratified**. Stratified epithelia are typically found where it needs to withstand damage from mechanical or chemical sources.
* **Pseudostratified** epithelium is where there appears to be layers due to nuclei appearing at different heights; in actual fact, the tissue is simple columnar.
123
Different type of epithelium cells according to their shape ?
The basic shapes of the epithelial cells are **squamous** (flat), **cuboidal** or **columnar**. Sometimes an epithelial surface can appear stratified cuboidal when relaxed, but when stretched its cells change shape to stratified squamous; this type of epithelium is termed **transitional** and it is found in locations such as the bladder, urethra and ureters. It can therefore also be known as **urothelium**.
124
Epithelium cells according to their surface modification ?
Surface modifications include **cilia** and **keratinisation**. The naming of the epithelia is therefore modified to reflect this.
125
The name of epithelium cells
* in the walls of capillaries and alveoli.
* in the collecting ducts of the kidneys.
* in the wall of the stomach or intestine.
* Simple squamous epithelia, specialised for diffusion
* Simple cuboidal epithelia, specialised for secretion & absorption
* Simple columnar epithelia, specialised for secretion & absorption. resist acidic environment.
126
the name of epithelium cells in
* in the lining of the trachea.
* Stratified squamous epithelia, which can be keratinised
* Stratified cuboidal epithelia
* Transitional epithelium, specialised for stretch
* ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelia
* in the skin.
* in sweat glands.
* in the bladder.
127
What is **Serous membranes?**
* epithelia that secrete
* They are composed of two layers of simple squamous epithelium, called a **mesothelium**. The inner layer of mesothelium is in contact with the organs in the cavity and is called the **visceral membrane**, the outer layer of mesothelium is called the **parietal membrane.**
* The mesothelial layers secrete **serous fluid** which lubricates the surfaces and reduces friction in these body cavities from muscle movement.
128
What is **Glandular epithelia?**
* epithelia that secrete
* The glandular part is formed from infoldings of epithelium, creating glands which are classified as either endocrine or exocrine.
129
Reticular tissue
a form of loose connective tissue wherein reticular fibres are the most predominant fibrous constituent, serves as the supporting structure of the bone marrow, liver and lymphoid organs (spleen, lymph nodes, and tonsils).
* **Type 3 collagen its predominately found in this type of connective tissue.**
130
Pinocytosis
is one of the types of endocytosis that can occur. It is also known as 'cell drinking'. The plasma membrane invaginates and pinches off to form a vesicle filled with a large volume of extracellular fluid (ECF) and molecules
131
receptor-mediated endocytosis, also known as clathrin-mediated endocytosis.
Clathrin-coated pits have receptors for different ligands, which they take up, producing small vesicles with coats made up of the protein clathrin
132
collagen in Extra cellular matrix (ECL) is hydrophilic, meaning the ground substance becomes gel-like. True / False
False
* Collagen makes up the fibrous component of the ECM; proteoglycans form the gel-like ground substance. Collagen is poorly soluble and does not have hydrophilic properties.
* **it provide physical strength**
133
Pleomorphism
describe **variability in the size, shape and staining of cells and/or their nuclei**
134
Which proteins make up the fibrous part of the extracellular matrix?
collagens and elastins, as well as fibronectins and laminins.
135
Which organelles synthesise hydrolytic enzymes which are found in lysosomes?
Ribosomes embedded in the rough endoplasmic reticulum RER.
136
What type of transport is blocked by tight junctions between cells?
Paracellular transport
137
What is the structure of Arterioles and why they are important
Made of 1 to 2 layers of smooth muscles important in controlling blood flow into the tissues
138
Veins structure
Have tunica intima and thin but continues tunica media Large veins have thick tunica adventitia with large amount of smooth muscles
139
Where do sinusoidal capillaries mostly located
SPLEEN And Have large intracellular clefts
140
Features of sinusoidal capillary
1. Large intracellular clefts 2. Most permeable capillary proteins like albumin can leak out 3. Found in spleen and other locations
141
Continuous capillary
1. Least permeable 2. Small intracellular cleft except for B.B.B 3. Contain pericytes that cause vasoconstriction Found in skin and B.B.B AND OTHERs
142
Fenestrated capillary features
1. Median intracellular clefts Fenestrated pores 3. Moderate permeability doesn’t allow blood cells 4. Found in kidney
143
what does high levels of Myoglobin indiacte
mostly found in muscle. Blood level may rise in muscle damage
144
what is the type of haemoglobin dissociation curves and myoglobin
haemoglobin is sigmoid,
myoglobin is hyperbolic.
145
What does the nucleus consist of
Outer -> ribosome
Inner -> lamns
Nuclear -> transport pores
rRNA synthesis (nucleolus)
Combine proteins -> Ribosmomes
Chromatin (DNA + Histones)
- Euchromatin (loose located in the center )
- Heterochromatin (tight located to the side)
DNA
146
Rough E.R consist of
Ribosomes
- site of protein synth
Synthesis
-> lysosomes
-> membrane
-> Excreted
Protein folding
Glycosylation
-> N-type
147
Smooth ER
-No ribosome
Lipid synthesis
-> fatty acid
-> phospholipids
-> cholesterol
High CyP450 -> liver for toxic drugs and ethanol
Glucose 6-phosphate metabolism
SOURCE OF Ca2+
148
Cell membrane
-Phospholipids -> polar head and non polar tails
Proteins
Barrer
-> simple diffusion
-> facilitate diffusion
-> Vesiular transport
149
GolGi
Receiving vesicles from
-> RER and SER
Modification
-> N-type and O-type
Phosphorylate
packages molecules
-> lysosome
-> membrane
-> Excreted
150
Lysosomes
function
1. break down macromolecules
2. Autophagy of organelles
3. Autolysis of damaged cells
Contain hydrolytic enzymes
-> proteases
-> nuclease
-> Lipase
-> Glucosideses
151
Peroxisomes
Catalses, Oxidase , metabolic enzymes
1. Catalse radicals to form water and oxygen
2. fatty acid oxidation -> alpha BCFA and Beta VLCFA
3. Ethanol metabolism
4. Make lipids( this used to make plasmalogen -> white matter ) + cholesterol
152
Mitochondria
ATP synthesis
-> Electro-transport chain
-> Oxidative Phosphorylation
Metabolic reaction
-> Krebs Cycle
-> Heme Synthesis
-> Urea Cycle
-> Gluconeogenesis
-> Ketogenesis
153
Microfilaments (Actin )
1. Actin+ myosin -> Muscle contraction
2. Cytokinesis of mitosis
3. Diapedesis of neutrophils
4. Phagocytosis
154
Intermediate filaments
Anchoring
1. cell to cell
2. Celll to extra cellular matrix
3. Cell to organelles
155
Micro Tubules
Consist of Alpha and Beta Tubulines
1. Intracellular transport
2. cell division (separate chromatids)
3. Cell Extension
-> Cilia
->Flagella
Microtubules contain Dynen and kinesin which they use ATP as an energy source.
156
1. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium is also known as .
2. Skin (option B) is
3. Most of the epithelium within the gastrointestinal tract (option C) is
4. Transitional epithelium (option D) is also known as
5. The meninges (option E) are
1. respiratory epithelium
2. stratified squamous epithelium.
3. simple columnar epithelium.
4. urothelium and is found in the bladder.
5. the membranes which cover the brain and spinal cord.
157
Respiratory epithelium goes by which histological name …?
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with Goblet cells
