Measurement, Methodology and Other: History Flashcards
You will be able to recognize the historical foundations and applied subfields of psychology, such as educational and industrial-organizational psychology. (121 cards)
1
Q
Define:
Psychology
A
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
2
Q
Define behavior as it relates to psychology.
A
Observable actions or responses of an individual to stimuli.
3
Q
Fill in the blank:
__________ __________ are defined as internal experiences, including feelings and thoughts.
A
Mental processes
4
Q
Why is Psychology a scientific study?
A
- It uses an empirical data to test hypotheses.
- It describes, predicts, and explains behavior and mental processes.
- It applies a systematic collection and interpretation of data.
5
Q
Fill in the blanks:
An example of the nature vs. nurture controversy is whether intelligence derives from __________ or is __________.
A
experience; inherited
6
Q
Define dualism as it relates to psychology.
A
It is the false idea that the mind and brain are separate entities that interact; in reality, they are the same entity, understood at different levels.
This idea of dualism usually is associated with Rene Descartes.
7
Q
What is monism?
A
The belief that, ultimately, the mind and the brain are the same thing.
There are various types of monism based on philosophers’ different points of view. They all agree on oneness, but they differ in what they target and how they count.
8
Q
Fill in the blank:
Plato and Descartes, believers in dualism, are on the side of __________ in the nature vs. nurture controversy.
A
nature
Descartes believed knowledge was innate and the pineal gland was the principal seat of the soul and the place in which all our thoughts are formed.
9
Q
Fill in the blank:
Aristotle, Hobbes, and Locke (believers in monism), are on the side of __________ in the nature vs. nurture controversy.
A
nurture
Locke’s “tabula rasa” translates to “blank slate” suggesting that knowledge is learned through experience.
10
Q
Psychology grew out of which discipline(s) in Ancient Greece?
A
- Philosophy
- Physiology
- Biology
11
Q
Who is credited with the foundation of scientific psychology?
A
Wilhelm Wundt, who performed the earliest studies in 1879 in Germany, is considered the father of the discipline of psychology. He created the first lab dedicated to psychological research, and wanted to measure consciousness.
12
Q
What was the first textbook in psychology?
A
Wundt’s Principles of Physiological Psychology, published in 1874, which made the case that psychology is a unique subject matter that is worthy of study. It defined psychology as the study of consciousness.
13
Q
Fill in the blank:
__________ examines the structure of the mind and basic elements of consciousness. Proponents of this system felt that consciousness should be the data of psychology and the best way to research was by using individuals who were trained in introspection.
A
Structuralism
14
Q
Define:
introspection
A
It is the process whereby observers look inward and objectively analyze their sensory experience.
15
Q
Fill in the blank:
__________ was the first woman to receive her Ph.D. in psychology.
A
Margaret Floy Washburn
16
Q
Define functionalism as it relates to psychology.
A
The school of thought that was a reaction to structuralism.
It studies how the mind adapts to its environment. It was interested in individual differences, whereas structuralism was interested in groups of people.
17
Q
Who was Mary Whiton Calkins?
A
The first female president of the American Psychological Association.
(APA)
18
Q
Name three of the earliest functionalists.
A
- William James
- James Cattell
- John Dewey
19
Q
What theory did William James found?
A
The functionalist perspective.
20
Q
Which psychological approach does this statement reflect?
Behavior results from learning through experience.
A
behavioral
21
Q
What is behavior modification?
A
A set of techniques to help individuals unlearn habits that have led to psychological problems.
22
Q
Describe Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiments.
A
He is an early behaviorist, in his famous classical conditioning experiment, trained dogs to salivate in response to the sound of a bell.
23
Q
What did John Watson believe Psychology should study?
A
He is one of the earliest behaviorists, felt psychology should be the science of overt behavior and reject the study of mental processes.
24
Q
Who is the psychologist behind operant conditioning of rats and pigeons?
A
B.F. Skinner
25
What is the key premise in Gestalt psychology?
It stresses that the whole process should be studied, rather than specific parts.
* It was a reaction to structuralism.
* While structuralism seeks to study the elements that make up consciousness, it stresses the idea that the “whole is greater than the sum of its parts".
26
# Define:
operant conditioning
Training organisms to **repeat responses that lead to rewards** and not to repeat responses that lead to punishment.
27
# Fill in the blank:
Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka were \_\_\_\_\_ psychologists.
Gestalt
28
Where do behavioral geneticists believe behavior comes from?
Particular behaviors are attributed to **genetically-based psychological characteristics**.
29
Who is the father of psychoanalysis?
Sigmund Freud
30
# Fill in the blank:
According to psychoanalysis, early life experiences are related to the development of one's \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ later in life.
personality
31
Other than Sigmund Freud, name four psychologists who associate with the **psychoanalytic perspective**.
1. Carl Jung
2. Alfred Adler
3. Karen Horney
4. Heinz Kohut
32
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ approach studies unconscious motives, while the biological approach studies chemical processes.
psychoanalytic
## Footnote
The psychoanalytic approach is also known as the psychodynamic approach.
33
What is the **difference** between the conscious mind and the subconscious mind?
* **Conscious** mind is readily **accessible**.
* **Subconscious** mind is **inaccessible** but influences behavior.
34
# Define:
repression
Psychoanalytic term for **burying information in the subconscious**.
35
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, unlike behaviorists, believe free will guides behavior and leads to personal growth.
Humanists
36
# Define:
humanism
Psychological perspective that believes **humans have unique qualities of behavior** that differ from other organisms.
37
Name two psychologists who associate with the humanistic approach.
1. Abraham Maslow
2. Carl Rogers
38
# Fill in the blank:
Technological advances and physiological research formed the basis of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ approach.
biological
## Footnote
The biological approach is also known as biopsychology or neuroscience.
39
# Fill in the blank:
According to the biological perspective, behavior is related to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ processes within the nervous and endocrine systems.
chemical
40
# Which psychological approach does this statement reflect?
Behaviors that contribute to survival and reproduction are naturally selected.
evolutionary
41
Who was the inspiration behind the evolutionary approach to psychology?
Charles Darwin
## Footnote
Darwin's theory of natural selection said all creatures have evolved over time in order to survive and reproduce.
42
Which psychological approach focuses on thinking, language, and how humans receive, store, and process information?
cognitive
43
Who first studied the cognitive development of children?
Jean Piaget
44
# Fill in the blank:
The structuralists studied consciousness, thinking, and memory. This area of psychology is currently known as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
cognition
45
# Which psychological approach does this statement reflect?
People from different cultures interpret gestures, body language, and verbal language differently.
sociocultural
## Footnote
These psychologists study how cultural differences affect behavior.
46
# Organize in chronological order from earliest to latest, based on when each became popular:
* sociocultural approach
* behavioral approach
* humanistic approach
1. The **behavioral approach** became popular in the early 20th century with Pavlov's research.
2. The **humanistic approach** came about in the mid-20th century in opposition to Behaviorism.
3. Lastly, the **sociocultural approach** grew toward the end of the century as there were more interactions between different cultures.
47
Name three Ancient Greeks who were philosophers who also discussed psychological concepts.
1. Socrates
2. Plato
3. Aristotle
48
Which Scientific Revolution-era thinker discussed mind-body dualism in his philosophical writings?
Rene Descartes
49
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ believed that thought and knowledge are not innate and that a human being is born as a tabula rasa.
John Locke
50
Who was one of the first thinkers to suggest that our perceptions of sensation are all that we can be sure of?
Thomas Hobbes
51
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ was an Enlightenment-era thinker who believed we were active shapers of our own worlds with inborn traits that skew our perceptions.
Immanuel Kant
52
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ was a Viennese scientist who was the first to use hypnotism (which he called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_) to cure mental illness.
Anton Mesmer; Mesmerism
## Footnote
Braid, Charcot, and Freud were other pioneering users of hypnosis and hypnotic techniques.
53
# Fill in the blank:
Phrenology, the "science" that proposed people's personalities were based on their skull shape, was created by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Franz Joseph Gall
54
Who was the first psychologist to use statistics in psychological research, as well as the inventor of the correlation coefficient?
Sir Francis Galton
55
# Fill in the blank:
Gustav Fechner can be considered the founder of \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ because of his use of empirical techniques to study psychological phenomena.
experimental psychology
56
# Define:
eugenics
A biological plan based loosely on **genetics** that hoped to **selectively breed human beings** to create the **perfect human**.
57
Who wrote "Elements of Physiology," a book that suggested the existence of special nerve energies?
Johannes Muller
## Footnote
His theory suggested that nerves will always fire the same way, despite different types of stimulation.
58
# Fill in the blank:
The first accepted psychological laboratory was founded in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt at \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ for the purposes of studying consciousness.
University of Leipzig
59
Which psychologist based his work on the now-discredited evolutionary work of Lamarck, and suggested that different races passed on their intelligence to future generations?
Herbert Spencer
60
Who was one of the founders of our current psychology of perception?
Hermann von Helmholtz
61
Who received the first Ph.D. in America and also was the founder of the American Psychological Association?
## Footnote
He also is responsible for the modern concept of adolescence.
Stanley Hall
62
Who did his psychological work on the reflex arc, which proposed that animals always adapt to their environments, rather than respond to stimuli with concrete responses?
John Dewey
63
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ was the inventor of structuralism, and he also used introspection to examine consciousness.
Edward Titchener
64
# Fill in the blanks:
James Cattell founded psychological research laboratories in both \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; he was one of the forefathers of the experimental movement in American psychology.
University of Pennsylvania; Columbia University
65
Who was one of the founders of the American movement to provide better care for the mentally ill?
Dorothea Lynde Dix
66
Who created the law of effect, which eventually led to operant conditioning?
Edward Thorndike
67
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ was a student of Sigmund Freud who created individual psychology, the idea of the inferiority complex, and a four-type personality system.
Alfred Adler
68
Which psychologist split from Sigmund Freud to go on to create analytic psychology?
Carl Gustav Jung
69
# Fill in the blank:
The mechanistic behavioral equation Performance = Drive x Habit is best associated with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Clark Hull
70
Which behaviorist believed that learning is acquired through purposeful behavior, which he demonstrated by running rats through mazes?
Edward Tolman
71
# Fill in the blank:
In the 1940s, psychology moved away from research and toward the practical treatment of mental illness, which was especially apparent in the emerging field of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
clinical psychology
72
Who was Konrad Lorenz?
He was one of the founders of **ethology** who also did extensive research with duckling imprinting
73
Who created a new form of therapy called client-centered therapy that employed unconditional positive regard?
Carl Rogers
74
# Fill in the blank:
Abraham Maslow was famous for leading humanistic psychology and creating the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_ \_\_\_\_\_.
the hierarchy of needs
75
# Fill in the blank:
Erik Erikson proposed an eight stage model of development that included a \_\_\_\_\_ in order to transition to the next stage.
crisis
76
# Define:
existential psychology
This is a field of psychology that focuses on the fact that people innately want to **search for meaning and purpose** to add substance to their lives; a major psychologist in this field was Viktor Frankl.
77
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, and many other cognitive psychologists, believed that mental illness comes from bad thinking patterns, which must be treated with cognitive therapy.
Aaron Beck
78
What are the six basic things to know about **Piaget**?
1. The child's interaction with the physical world leads to logical cognition.
2. He has a stage theory and going through the stages leads to qualitative changes in the way you reason.
3. Universal: everyone develops the same way and culture has only a small role.
4. The mind is active.
5. Functional part of his theory has assimilation and accommodation.
6. Structural part of his theory has schemas and operations.
79
Here is a helpful outline of the history of Psychology:
* Philosophers (Descartes, Hobbs, Locke, Berkeley)
* Sensory-Physiologists (Bell-Magendie, Muller, Helmholtz, Weber-Fechner)
* Structuralist (Wundt and Titchner)
* Functionalist (James, Thorndike, Cattel)
* Behaviorist (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Hull, and Tolman)
* Gestalt (Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka)
* Clinical (Freud, Jung, Adler)
80
What is the main contribution of Weber-Fechner Law to psychometrics?
It quantifies the relationship between **stimulus magnitude** and **perceived intensity**.
## Footnote
The Weber-Fechner Law is foundational in psychometrics, illustrating that perception of change in a given stimulus is proportional to the initial stimulus.
81
Which scale of measurement categorizes data without a specific order?
Nominal scale
## Footnote
Nominal scales classify data into distinct categories, such as gender or race, without any order or ranking.
82
# True or False:
An ordinal scale provides information about both order and the exact difference between values.
False
## Footnote
Ordinal scales indicate the order of values but not the precise difference between them, such as rankings in a race.
83
What is test-retest reliability?
Consistency of scores across time when the same test is administered on two different occasions.
## Footnote
Test-retest reliability assesses the stability of a test over time, indicating its temporal reliability.
84
Define **internal consistency** in the context of reliability.
A **measure** of how well the **items on a test** measure the same **construct or concept**.
## Footnote
Internal consistency is often measured using Cronbach's alpha, ensuring that test items cohesively evaluate a single dimension.
85
What type of validity is concerned with how well a test reflects all aspects of the concept it intends to measure?
Content validity
## Footnote
Content validity ensures comprehensive coverage of the construct, often assessed by expert judgment.
86
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ validity is the degree to which test scores correlate with an external criterion.
Criterion
## Footnote
Criterion validity evaluates how well one measure predicts an outcome based on another established measure.
87
Explain the main difference between Classical Test Theory (CTT) and Item Response Theory (IRT).
* **CTT** assumes that each test item contributes **equally** to the total score.
* **IRT** considers the **properties of each item** and its interaction with the latent trait.
## Footnote
IRT provides a more nuanced understanding of item characteristics, often used for adaptive testing, unlike the simpler assumptions of CTT.
88
In research design, how does an experimental design differ from a correlational design?
* **Experimental** design **manipulates** variables to establish cause-effect relationships.
* **Correlational** design **examines** associations between variables without manipulation.
## Footnote
Only experimental designs can determine causality, whereas correlational designs are limited to identifying relationships.
89
What is a common bias in sampling methods that can affect research outcomes?
Selection bias
## Footnote
Selection bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the population, potentially skewing study results.
90
What is a key ethical consideration in research according to APA guidelines?
Informed consent
## Footnote
Informed consent involves providing participants with all necessary information about the study to make an educated decision about their involvement.
91
# True or False:
Ratio scales have a true zero point, unlike interval scales.
True
## Footnote
Ratio scales allow for meaningful comparisons of absolute magnitudes because they have a true zero, unlike interval scales that lack this feature.
92
What is the primary purpose of job analysis?
To **identify** the **tasks**, **responsibilities**, and **skills** required for a job.
## Footnote
Job analysis is essential for developing job descriptions and specifications, which are foundational for recruitment, performance appraisal, and training.
93
Name two methods of job analysis.
* Task inventories
* Critical incidents
## Footnote
Task inventories involve listing and rating job tasks, while critical incidents focus on identifying key instances of effective or ineffective job performance.
94
# True or False:
Structured interviews have higher validity than unstructured interviews.
True
## Footnote
Structured interviews use standardized questions, leading to more reliable and valid assessments of candidates compared to unstructured interviews.
95
What is **validity generalization** in personnel selection?
It refers to the application of validity evidence from one context to another.
## Footnote
This concept suggests that certain selection tests can be valid across different jobs or settings, reducing the need to conduct new validation studies.
96
Identify one advantage of on-the-job training.
Immediate application of skills in the work environment.
## Footnote
On-the-job training allows employees to learn by doing, which can enhance retention and relevance of the new skills.
97
What are the three core components of expectancy theory in work motivation?
* Expectancy
* Instrumentality
* Valence
## Footnote
Expectancy theory posits that motivation is based on the belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to rewards, and the rewards are valuable.
98
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ leadership focuses on inspiring and motivating followers through vision and personal charisma.
Transformational
## Footnote
Transformational leaders seek to change and improve the organization by encouraging innovation and commitment from their followers.
99
List two key factors that contribute to a positive organizational culture.
* Clear values and vision
* Supportive leadership
## Footnote
A positive organizational culture fosters employee engagement, satisfaction, and productivity by aligning organizational goals with employee values and practices.
100
What is the primary focus of occupational health psychology?
Promoting the **well-being** and **safety** of employees in the workplace.
## Footnote
Occupational health psychology addresses issues such as stress management, injury prevention, and work-life balance to enhance overall employee health.
101
What is the difference between job satisfaction and job engagement?
* Job satisfaction: **Contentment** with job aspects.
* Job engagement: **Emotional investment** in work.
## Footnote
While job satisfaction reflects how content an employee is with their job, job engagement indicates a deeper involvement and enthusiasm for their work tasks and outcomes.
102
Name one advantage of using critical incidents in performance appraisal.
Provides specific examples of behavior for feedback.
## Footnote
Critical incidents focus on specific, observable instances of employee performance, offering detailed and actionable feedback for improvement.
103
Define **team performance** in the context of group dynamics.
The **effectiveness** with which a team meets its **objectives** and **goals**.
## Footnote
Team performance involves collaboration, communication, and coordination among team members to achieve desired outcomes efficiently and effectively.
104
# True or False:
Reinforcement theory suggests that behavior is a function of its consequences.
True
## Footnote
According to reinforcement theory, behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to recur.
105
What is the role of instructional design in training development?
To systematically plan, develop, and implement training programs.
## Footnote
Instructional design ensures that training is effective, efficient, and aligned with organizational goals by using a structured approach to learning.
106
Identify two key traits associated with effective leadership.
* Integrity
* Emotional intelligence
## Footnote
Effective leaders often exhibit traits such as integrity, which fosters trust, and emotional intelligence, which enhances communication and relationship management.
107
What is the primary focus of behaviorist learning theory?
Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they can be conditioned or reinforced.
## Footnote
Behaviorism, founded by John B. Watson and further developed by B.F. Skinner, emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior through reinforcement and punishment.
108
List the five phases of the **ADDIE** instructional design model.
1. Analysis
2. Design
3. Development
4. Implementation
5. Evaluation
## Footnote
The ADDIE model is a framework used by instructional designers to create effective educational experiences through a systematic approach.
109
# True or False:
Formative assessments are typically used at the end of a learning unit to measure student achievement.
False
## Footnote
Formative assessments are used throughout the learning process to provide feedback and guide instruction, while summative assessments evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional period.
110
According to Piaget, what is the term for the process of **adjusting schemas** in **response to new information**?
Accommodation
## Footnote
In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, accommodation refers to altering existing schemas or creating new ones when new information doesn't fit into existing schemas.
111
What classroom management approach emphasizes the importance of **positive relationships and mutual respect** between teachers and students?
The Humanistic approach
## Footnote
The Humanistic approach, influenced by theorists like Carl Rogers, focuses on creating a supportive learning environment through empathy and understanding.
112
What is Vygotsky’s concept that describes the difference between what a learner can do **independently** and what they can do with **guidance**?
Zone of Proximal Development
| (ZPD)
## Footnote
Vygotsky's ZPD highlights the potential for cognitive development and the importance of social interaction in learning, suggesting that learning occurs in this gap with appropriate support.
113
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a learner's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or tasks.
Self-efficacy
## Footnote
Self-efficacy, a concept developed by Albert Bandura, affects motivation, learning, and performance, influencing how people approach goals, tasks, and challenges.
114
What type of assessment compares a student's performance against a predetermined standard or criterion?
Criterion-referenced assessment
## Footnote
Criterion-referenced assessments measure a student's knowledge or skills against specific learning standards, unlike norm-referenced assessments, which compare students to each other.
115
Name one key principle of standardized testing.
Reliability
## Footnote
Reliability refers to the consistency of a test over time, ensuring that it produces stable and consistent results across different administrations and contexts.
116
What framework outlines **nine instructional events** to enhance **learning**, proposed by Robert Gagné?
Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction
## Footnote
Gagné's framework includes steps such as gaining attention, providing feedback, and enhancing retention, aimed at optimizing the learning process.
117
# True or False:
Multimedia in education is only beneficial for visual learners.
False
## Footnote
Multimedia can enhance learning for all types of learners by providing diverse representations of information, catering to multiple sensory modalities, and improving engagement and retention.
118
What is the term for the **systematic evaluation of test items** to ensure quality and fairness?
Item analysis
## Footnote
Item analysis involves examining questions to determine their difficulty, discrimination, and effectiveness, helping educators refine assessments and improve their validity.
119
# Fill in the blank:
In educational settings, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are modifications or supports provided to students with special needs to ensure equal access to learning opportunities.
accommodations
## Footnote
Accommodations can include changes in the presentation of material, response format, testing conditions, or instructional strategies to support students with disabilities.
120
What is one major advantage of e-learning in education?
Flexibility
## Footnote
E-learning provides flexibility in terms of time and location, allowing learners to access educational materials and complete coursework at their own pace and convenience.
121
What is the primary goal of constructivist learning theories?
To enable learners to **construct their own understanding and knowledge** through **experiences and reflection**.
## Footnote
Constructivism, influenced by theorists like Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes active engagement and hands-on learning, where learners build on their prior knowledge and experiences.
