Introduction to Social Psychology Flashcards
(216 cards)
1
Q
Define
Accessibility
A
The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds and are therefore likely to be used to be used when making judgments about the social world
2
Q
Define
Analytic Thinking Style
A
A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures
3
Q
Define
Applied Research
A
Studies designed to solve a particular social problem
4
Q
Define
Archival Analysis
A
A form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines and newspapers)
5
Q
Define
Automatic Thinking
A
Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary and effortless
6
Q
Define
Availability heuristic
A
a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision
7
Q
Define
Base Rate Information
A
Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population
8
Q
Define
Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist
A
The trade-off between internal and external validity in conducting research; it is very difficult to do one experiment that is both high in internal validity and generalisable to other situations and people
9
Q
Define
Basic Research
A
Studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity
10
Q
Define
Behaviourism
A
A school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behaviour, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment
11
Q
Define
Central traits
A
an attribute in someone’s personality that is considered particularly meaningful, in that its presence or absence signals the presence or absence of other traits
12
Q
Define
Conformity
A
A change in one’s behaviour due to the real or imagined influence of other people
13
Q
Define
Construal
A
The way in which people perceive, comprehend and interpret the social world
14
Q
Define
Contagion
A
The rapid spread of emotions or behaviours through a crowd
15
Q
Define
Controlled Thinking
A
Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful
16
Q
Define
Correlation Coefficient
A
The technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed
17
Q
Define
Cover Story
A
A secription of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpiose and is used to maintain psychological realism
18
Q
Define
Cross-Cultural Research
A
Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised
19
Q
Define
Debriefing
A
Explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired
20
Q
Define
Deception
A
Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the event that will actually transpire
21
Q
Define
Dependent Variable
A
The variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable; the researcher hypothesises that this variable will depend on the level of the independent variable
22
Q
Define
Descriptive Norms
A
People’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behaviour is approved or disapproved of by others
23
Q
Define
Door-in-the-Face Technique
A
Social influence strategy in which first asking people for a large request that they will probably refuse makes them more likely to agree later to a second, smaller request
24
Q
Define
Ethnography
A
The method by which researchers attemprs to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have
25
# Define
Evolutionary Psychology
The attempt to explain social behaviour in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the priniciples of natural selection
26
# Define
Evolutionary Theory
A concept developed by Charles Darwin to wxplain the ways in which animals adapt to their environments
27
# Define
Experimental Method
The method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people's responses)
28
# Define
External Validity
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalised to other situations and other people
29
# Define
Field Experiments
Experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory
30
# Define
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
Social infleunce strategy in which getting people to agree first to a small request makes them more likely to agree later to a second, larger request
31
# Define
Frontal lobe
each of the paired lobes of the brain lying immediately behind the forehead, including areas concerned with behaviour, learning, personality, and voluntary movement
32
# Define
Fundamental Attibution Error
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people's behaviour is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors
33
# Define
Gestalt Psychology
A school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people's minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object
34
# Define
Hindsight Bias
The tendency for people to exaggerate, after knowing something occurred, how much they could have predicted it before it occurred
35
# Define
Holistic Thinking Style
A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan and Korea)
36
# Define
Idiosyncrasy Credits
The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, deviate from the group without retribution
37
# Define
Independent Variable
The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable
38
# Define
Informational Social Influence
Relying on other people as a source of information to guide our behaviour; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is correct and can help us choose an appropriate course of action
39
# Define
Informed Consent
Agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance
40
# Define
Injunctive Norms
People's perceptiosn of what behaviours are approved or disapproved of by others
41
# Define
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
A group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that review all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines; all research must be approved by this body before it is conducted
42
# Define
Interjudge Reliability
The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that two or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not the subjective, distorted impressions of one individual
43
# Define
Internal Validity
Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions
44
# Define
Judgmental Heuristics
Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently
45
# Define
Meta-Analysis
A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable
46
# Define
Minority Influence
The case where a minority of a group members influences the behaviour or beliefs of the majority
47
# Define
Natural Selection
The process by which heritable traits that promote survival in a particulat environment are passed along to future generations; organisms with those traits are more likely to produce offspring
48
# Define
Neurotransmitters
a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure
49
# Define
Normative Social Infleunce
Going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group's beliefs and behaviours but do not always privately accept them
50
# Define
Observational Method
The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behaviour
51
# Define
Overconfidence Barrier
The fact that people usually have too much confidence in the accuract of their judgments
52
# Define
Primacy effect
the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence
53
# Define
Priming
The process by which recent ecperiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait or concept
54
# Define
Private Acceptance
Conforming to other people's behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
55
# Define
Probability Level (p-value)
A number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables; the convention in science, including social psychology, is to consider results significant if the probability level is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be due to chance factors and noth the independent variables studied
56
# Define
Propaganda
A deliberate, systematic attempt to advance a cause by manipulating mass attitudes and behaviours, often through misleading or emotionally charged information
57
# Define
Psychological Realism
The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life
58
# Define
Public Compliance
Conforming to other people's behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying
59
# Define
Random Assignment to Condition
A process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants' personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditions
60
# Define
Random sampling
a procedure in which every member of a population of interest has an equal probability of being selected and the selection of one member does not affect in any way the selection of another member
61
# Define
Replications
Repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings
62
# Define
Representativeness heuristic
A mental shortcut whereby people classify something accoridng to how similar it is to a typical case
63
# Define
Schemas
Mental structures people use to organise their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember
64
# Define
Script
a pre-existing knowledge structure involving event sequences
65
# Define
Self-Esteem
People's evauations of their own self-worth - that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent
66
# Define
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
An expectations of one's own or another person's behaviour that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about
67
# Define
Social Cognition
How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
68
# Define
Social Impact Theory
The idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group's importance, immediacy, and the umber of people in the group
69
# Define
Social Influence
The effect that the words, actions, or mere prescence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviour
70
# Define
Social Norms
The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs or its members
71
# Define
Social Psychology
The scientific study of the way in which people's thoughts feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people
72
# Define
Stereotype
A generalisation about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members
73
# Define
Surveys
Research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behaviours
74
# Definition
The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people's minds and are therefore likely to be used to be used when making judgments about the social world
Accessibility
75
# Definition
A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures
Analytic Thinking Style
76
# Definition
Studies designed to solve a particular social problem
Applied Research
77
# Definition
A form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines and newspapers)
Archival Analysis
78
# Definition
Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary and effortless
Automatic Thinking
79
# Definition
a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision
Availability heuristic
80
# Definition
Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population
Base Rate Information
81
# Definition
The trade-off between internal and external validity in conducting research; it is very difficult to do one experiment that is both high in internal validity and generalisable to other situations and people
Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist
82
# Definition
Studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity
Basic Research
83
# Definition
A school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behaviour, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment
Behaviourism
84
# Definition
an attribute in someone's personality that is considered particularly meaningful, in that its presence or absence signals the presence or absence of other traits
Central traits
85
# Definition
A change in one's behaviour due to the real or imagined influence of other people
Conformity
86
# Definition
The way in which people perceive, comprehend and interpret the social world
Construal
87
# Definition
The rapid spread of emotions or behaviours through a crowd
Contagion
88
# Definition
Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful
Controlled Thinking
89
# Definition
The technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed
Correlation Coefficient
90
# Definition
A secription of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpiose and is used to maintain psychological realism
Cover Story
91
# Definition
Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised
Cross-Cultural Research
92
# Definition
Explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired
Debriefing
93
# Definition
Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the event that will actually transpire
Deception
94
# Definition
The variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable; the researcher hypothesises that this variable will depend on the level of the independent variable
Dependent Variable
95
# Definition
People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behaviour is approved or disapproved of by others
Descriptive Norms
96
# Definition
Social influence strategy in which first asking people for a large request that they will probably refuse makes them more likely to agree later to a second, smaller request
Door-in-the-Face Technique
97
# Definition
The method by which researchers attemprs to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have
Ethnography
98
# Definition
The attempt to explain social behaviour in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the priniciples of natural selection
Evolutionary Psychology
99
# Definition
A concept developed by Charles Darwin to wxplain the ways in which animals adapt to their environments
Evolutionary Theory
100
# Definition
The method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people's responses)
Experimental Method
101
# Definition
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalised to other situations and other people
External Validity
102
# Definition
Experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory
Field Experiments
103
# Definition
Social infleunce strategy in which getting people to agree first to a small request makes them more likely to agree later to a second, larger request
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
104
# Definition
each of the paired lobes of the brain lying immediately behind the forehead, including areas concerned with behaviour, learning, personality, and voluntary movement
Frontal lobe
105
# Definition
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people's behaviour is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors
Fundamental Attibution Error
106
# Definition
A school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people's minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object
Gestalt Psychology
107
# Definition
The tendency for people to exaggerate, after knowing something occurred, how much they could have predicted it before it occurred
Hindsight Bias
108
# Definition
A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan and Korea)
Holistic Thinking Style
109
# Definition
The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, deviate from the group without retribution
Idiosyncrasy Credits
110
# Definition
The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable
Independent Variable
111
# Definition
Relying on other people as a source of information to guide our behaviour; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is correct and can help us choose an appropriate course of action
Informational Social Influence
112
# Definition
Agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance
Informed Consent
113
# Definition
People's perceptiosn of what behaviours are approved or disapproved of by others
Injunctive Norms
114
# Definition
A group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that review all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines; all research must be approved by this body before it is conducted
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
115
# Definition
The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that two or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not the subjective, distorted impressions of one individual
Interjudge Reliability
116
# Definition
Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions
Internal Validity
117
# Definition
Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently
Judgmental Heuristics
118
# Definition
A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable
Meta-Analysis
119
# Definition
The case where a minority of a group members influences the behaviour or beliefs of the majority
Minority Influence
120
# Definition
The process by which heritable traits that promote survival in a particulat environment are passed along to future generations; organisms with those traits are more likely to produce offspring
Natural Selection
121
# Definition
a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure
Neurotransmitters
122
# Definition
Going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group's beliefs and behaviours but do not always privately accept them
Normative Social Infleunce
123
# Definition
The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behaviour
Observational Method
124
# Definition
The fact that people usually have too much confidence in the accuract of their judgments
Overconfidence Barrier
125
# Definition
the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence
Primacy effect
126
# Definition
The process by which recent ecperiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait or concept
Priming
127
# Definition
Conforming to other people's behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
Private Acceptance
128
# Definition
A number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables; the convention in science, including social psychology, is to consider results significant if the probability level is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be due to chance factors and noth the independent variables studied
Probability Level (p-value)
129
# Definition
A deliberate, systematic attempt to advance a cause by manipulating mass attitudes and behaviours, often through misleading or emotionally charged information
Propaganda
130
# Definition
The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life
Psychological Realism
131
# Definition
Conforming to other people's behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying
Public Compliance
132
# Definition
A process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants' personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditions
Random Assignment to Condition
133
# Definition
a procedure in which every member of a population of interest has an equal probability of being selected and the selection of one member does not affect in any way the selection of another member
Random sampling
134
# Definition
Repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings
Replications
135
# Definition
A mental shortcut whereby people classify something accoridng to how similar it is to a typical case
Representativeness heuristic
136
# Definition
Mental structures people use to organise their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember
Schemas
137
# Definition
a pre-existing knowledge structure involving event sequences
Script
138
# Definition
People's evauations of their own self-worth - that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent
Self-Esteem
139
# Definition
An expectations of one's own or another person's behaviour that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
140
# Definition
How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
Social Cognition
141
# Definition
The idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group's importance, immediacy, and the umber of people in the group
Social Impact Theory
142
# Definition
The effect that the words, actions, or mere prescence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviour
Social Influence
143
# Definition
The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs or its members
Social Norms
144
# Definition
The scientific study of the way in which people's thoughts feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people
Social Psychology
145
# Definition
A generalisation about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members
Stereotype
146
# Definition
Research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behaviours
Surveys
147
What three main areas are included in social psychology?
Social thinking
Social infleunce
Social relations
148
What is the difference between sociology, social and personality psychology?
**Sociology:** the study of groups, organisations, and societies, rather than individuals
**Social psychology:** the study of the psychological processes people have in common that make them susceptible to social influence
**Personality psychology:** the study of the characteristics tat make inividuals unique and different from one another
149
Which effect explains the following scenario?
## Footnote
*When you hear of a person who failed a test and think that they must be stupid or didn't study enough so it's their fault but when you fail a test, the test must have been too hard so it's not your fault*
Fundamental attribution error
150
What happens when we fail to fully appreciate the power of the situation?
Oversimplify complex situations
Decrease our understanding of the true causes
Blame the victim when people are overpowered by social forces
151
What is social cogntion?
How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
* Takes into account how people think about the world
* We try to gain accurate understandings so we can make effective judgments and decisions
* But we typically act on the basis of incompletely and inaccurately interpreted information
152
153
What are the two types of social cognition?
Automatic thinking
Controlled thinking
154
Which are central traits: *warm/cold, polite/blunt* ?
Warm/cold
155
True or False:
Traits that appear first in a description have more impact in final impressions
True
156
What are some different types of schemas?
Person schema
Content-free schema
Self-schema
Role schema
157
What are the three reasons schemas become accessible?
Past experience
Goal
Recent experiences
158
What type of social cognition is priming?
Automatic thinking
159
What are the different types of automatic thinking?
* **Priming**
* Automatic goal pursuit
* Automatic decision making
* Automatic thinking and metaphors about the body and mind
* Mental strategies and shortcuts
160
What are the three main heuristics/cognitive shortcuts?
Representative heuristic
Availability heuristic
Anchoring
161
What is the main different in social cogntion between Western and East Asian cultures?
Analytic thinking styles are typical of Western cultures whereas Holistic thinking styles are more typical of East Asian cultures
162
How does someone belief in free-will influence their behaviour?
The more people believe in free will, the more they help and the less they cheat
163
Why do people conform?
* Can lead to positive or negative behavior
* People conform because they don’t know how to act in a confusing or unusual situation.
* People conform because behaviour of people around us serves as a cue to how to respond.
* People conform because they don’t want to be ridiculed or punished.
* People conform because they want to be accepted by the group.
164
What is the difference between private acceptance and public compliance?
**Private acceptance:**
* Conforming to other people’s behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
* Informational social influence often results in private acceptance!
**Public compliance:**
* Conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what we are doing or saying
165
When will people conform to informational social influence?
When the situation is:
* Ambiguous
* A crisis
* When other people are experts
166
What are the two types of norms that operate in different situations?
Injunctive norms
Descriptive norms
167
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ = The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members.
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group’s beliefs and behaviors but do not always privately accept them.
**Social Norms** = The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members.
**Normative Social Influence**: Going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group’s beliefs and behaviors but do not always privately accept them.
168
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: People’s perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: People’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others
**Injunctive norms:** People’s perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others
**Descriptive norms**: People’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others
169
What are the three compliance techniques?
Foot-in-the-door
Door-in-the-face
Propaganda
170
What type of compliance technique was used in Milgram's experiment?
Foot-in-the-door
171
Why was Milgram's experiment considered unethical?
* Involved deception
* Lacked fully informed consent
* Role as teacher caused psychological distress
* Not made clear that the participants could withdraw from study
* Participants experienced inflicted insight
172
Social psychology is social because it
A) incorporates evolutionary social psychology
B) deals with how people are affected by other people
C) is a branch of general psychology
D) is based on group dynamics
Social psychology is social because it
A) incorporates evolutionary social psychology
**B) deals with how people are affected by other people**
C) is a branch of general psychology
D) is based on group dynamics
173
Cognitive psychology's influence on social psychology is evident in the area of
A) cognitive ethology
B) sociolinguistics
C) social cognition
D) cognitive dissonance
Cognitive psychology's influence on social psychology is evident in the area of
A) cognitive ethology
B) sociolinguistics
**C) social cognition**
D) cognitive dissonance
174
One problem with defining social psychology solely in terms of the topics it studies is that
A) this does not properly differentiate it from other disciplines
B) it’s too closely related to sociology
C) it covers the study of too large a range of topics
D) there is no problem; social psychology is always defined solely in terms of the topics social psychologists study
One problem with defining social psychology solely in terms of the topics it studies is that
**A) this does not properly differentiate it from other disciplines**
B) it’s too closely related to sociology
C) it covers the study of too large a range of topics
D) there is no problem; social psychology is always defined solely in terms of the topics social psychologists study
175
At a broad level, research in social psychology can be said to use two types of methods
A) correlational and multivariate
B) discursive and narrative
C) quantitative and statistical
D) experimental and non-experimental
At a broad level, research in social psychology can be said to use two types of methods
A) correlational and multivariate
B) discursive and narrative
C) quantitative and statistical
**D) experimental and non-experimental**
176
One way to avoid confounding results in an experiment is to
A) ensure the hypotheses are phrased as testable predictions
B) test all participants in rooms with blue walls, regardless of their condition
C) ensure all conditions are identical except for the independent variable of interest
D) only ever test a maximum of six participants at a time, to allow ease of recording data
One way to avoid confounding results in an experiment is to
A) ensure the hypotheses are phrased as testable predictions
B) test all participants in rooms with blue walls, regardless of their condition
**C) ensure all conditions are identical except for the independent variable of interest**
D) only ever test a maximum of six participants at a time, to allow ease of recording data
177
Social cognition is a field of social psychology dealing with how
A) attitudes need to be cognitively consistent
B) genes influence our thinking
C) we construct a self-image
D) thought processes are linked to social contexts and social behaviour
Social cognition is a field of social psychology dealing with how
A) attitudes need to be cognitively consistent
B) genes influence our thinking
C) we construct a self-image
**D) thought processes are linked to social contexts and social behaviour**
178
Which concept has NOT played a role in the development of modern social cognition?
A) Group mind
B) Attribution
C) Cognitive miser
D) Motivated tactician
Which concept has NOT played a role in the development of modern social cognition?
**A) Group mind**
B) Attribution
C) Cognitive miser
D) Motivated tactician
179
The model in which people are motivated to reduce perceived discrepancies between their various cognitions, because such discrepancies are aversive or unpleasant, is called
A) cognitive balance
B) cognitive harmony
C) cognitive similarity
D) cognitive consistency
The model in which people are motivated to reduce perceived discrepancies between their various cognitions, because such discrepancies are aversive or unpleasant, is called
A) cognitive balance
B) cognitive harmony
C) cognitive similarity
**D) cognitive consistency**
180
What characterises 'naïve scientists' is that they
A) are generally of average rather than superior intelligence
B) fail to understand that their inventions can make money
C) are often isolated from the real world
D) use cause-effect interpretations of events around them
What characterises 'naïve scientists' is that they
A) are generally of average rather than superior intelligence
B) fail to understand that their inventions can make money
C) are often isolated from the real world
**D) use cause-effect interpretations of events around them**
181
Following Asch (1946), which model do people use to form first impressions of others?
A) A cognitive model
B) A configural model
C) A behavioural model
D) A tangential model
Following Asch (1946), which model do people use to form first impressions of others?
A) A cognitive model
**B) A configural model**
C) A behavioural model
D) A tangential model
182
Asch (1946) found that some traits (central traits) perceived in others strongly affect how we decide if other traits also apply. For example, we are more likely to judge Mary as 'generous' if we also believe that she is
A) 'warm'
B) 'cold'
C) 'polite'
D) both A and B
Asch (1946) found that some traits (central traits) perceived in others strongly affect how we decide if other traits also apply. For example, we are more likely to judge Mary as 'generous' if we also believe that she is
**A) 'warm'**
B) 'cold'
C) 'polite'
D) both A and B
183
Stephanie is a firm believer in ‘not judging a book by its cover’. In her Introduction to Psychology class, Stephanie has been partnered up with Chris for a group assignment. When she looks across the room to see her new partner, Stephanie finds Chris very physically attractive. Based on her first impressions, Stephanie is likely to judge Chris as
A) dumb, incompetent, unreliable and boring
B) average, mediocre and middle of the range
C) nothing yet, she cannot make a judgement based solely on his looks
D) intelligent, interesting, capable and a good worker
Stephanie is a firm believer in ‘not judging a book by its cover’. In her Introduction to Psychology class, Stephanie has been partnered up with Chris for a group assignment. When she looks across the room to see her new partner, Stephanie finds Chris very physically attractive. Based on her first impressions, Stephanie is likely to judge Chris as
A) dumb, incompetent, unreliable and boring
B) average, mediocre and middle of the range
C) nothing yet, she cannot make a judgement based solely on his looks
**D) intelligent, interesting, capable and a good worke**r
184
When we perform mental calculations using summation, averaging and weighted averaging, we are actually using
A) coordinate geometry
B) cluster analysis
C) cognitive algebra
D) trigonometry
When we perform mental calculations using summation, averaging and weighted averaging, we are actually using
A) coordinate geometry
B) cluster analysis
**C) cognitive algebra**
D) trigonometry
185
You met Sarah in your very first Introduction to Psychology lecture. Throughout the semester, you have discovered that Sarah is intelligent, humorous, generous, and really social. However, you have also noticed she is quite lazy and bossy. Using your knowledge of cognitive algebra, you have worked out that your final impression of Sarah as a potential friend is quite high at +3.60. However, your final impression of Sarah as a partner for an assignment is -1.70. This is an example of
A) averaging
B) stereotyping
C) summation
D) weighted averaging
You met Sarah in your very first Introduction to Psychology lecture. Throughout the semester, you have discovered that Sarah is intelligent, humorous, generous, and really social. However, you have also noticed she is quite lazy and bossy. Using your knowledge of cognitive algebra, you have worked out that your final impression of Sarah as a potential friend is quite high at +3.60. However, your final impression of Sarah as a partner for an assignment is -1.70. This is an example of
A) averaging
B) stereotyping
C) summation
**D) weighted averaging**
186
The best definition of a schema is that it is
A) a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus
B) a cognitive representation of the typical or ideal defining features of a category
C) a collection of instances that have a family resemblance
D) a cognitive structure specific to a social group and is widely shared
The best definition of a schema is that it is
**A) a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus**
B) a cognitive representation of the typical or ideal defining features of a category
C) a collection of instances that have a family resemblance
D) a cognitive structure specific to a social group and is widely shared
187
Your friend claims that guys in rock bands ‘snort drugs, stub out cigarettes on the carpet and steal people’s knickers’. Your studies suggest that these descriptions are
A) associative networks
B) stereotypes
C) content-free schemas
D) all of the above
Your friend claims that guys in rock bands ‘snort drugs, stub out cigarettes on the carpet and steal people’s knickers’. Your studies suggest that these descriptions are
A) associative networks
**B) stereotypes**
C) content-free schemas
D) all of the above
188
When you started your degree perhaps you were confident of graduating because you are hardworking, at least as intelligent as the average student and otherwise a determined person. Such traits are aspects of your
A) self-schema
B) genes
C) ideal self
D) ego
When you started your degree perhaps you were confident of graduating because you are hardworking, at least as intelligent as the average student and otherwise a determined person. Such traits are aspects of your
**A) self-schema**
B) genes
C) ideal self
D) ego
189
Alyson, Cara and Hilda agree that Prince Harry is the perfect male. They
A) are using a prototype
B) are creating a stereotype
C) have clarified a fuzzy set
D) need counselling
Alyson, Cara and Hilda agree that Prince Harry is the perfect male. They
**A) are using a prototype**
B) are creating a stereotype
C) have clarified a fuzzy set
D) need counselling
190
People use schemas to process information. Schemas function to
A) interpret new information
B) encode old information
C) fill in gaps in what we know
D) all of the above
People use schemas to process information. Schemas function to
A) interpret new information
B) encode old information
C) fill in gaps in what we know
**D) all of the above**
191
Who was the most influential person of the 20th century? Europeans may refer to Hitler, Indians to Gandhi and Americans to Kennedy. These are different responses, so that the category 'influential person' is a(n)
A) stereotype
B) fuzzy set
C) prototype
D) exemplar
Who was the most influential person of the 20th century? Europeans may refer to Hitler, Indians to Gandhi and Americans to Kennedy. These are different responses, so that the category 'influential person' is a(n)
A) stereotype
**B) fuzzy set**
C) prototype
D) exemplar
192
Which of the following statements is INCORRECT?
A) Negative stereotypes become more hostile during times of intergroup conflict.
B) Once formed, stereotypes change very slowly.
C) Stereotypes are acquired through contact with members of outgroups.
D) Stereotypes make sense of intergroup relations.
Which of the following statements is INCORRECT?
A) Negative stereotypes become more hostile during times of intergroup conflict.
B) Once formed, stereotypes change very slowly.
**C) Stereotypes are acquired through contact with members of outgroups.**
D) Stereotypes make sense of intergroup relations.
193
When categorising stimuli, the accentuation effect is enhanced when
A) the categorisation has importance, relevance or value to the person
B) it is easy to categorise the stimuli based on differing attributes
C) the categorisation is based on easily observable, physical characteristics
D) the categorisation is not important or relevant to the person
When categorising stimuli, the accentuation effect is enhanced when
**A) the categorisation has importance, relevance or value to the person**
B) it is easy to categorise the stimuli based on differing attributes
C) the categorisation is based on easily observable, physical characteristics
D) the categorisation is not important or relevant to the person
194
Schemas become more complex as
A) more instances are encountered
B) we continue to study social psychology
C) information overload is reduced
D) fewer instances relate to it
Schemas become more complex as
**A) more instances are encountered**
B) we continue to study social psychology
C) information overload is reduced
D) fewer instances relate to it
195
The property of a stimulus to make it stand out relative to other stimuli is called
A) vividness
B) salience
C) accessibility
D) attention-seeking
The property of a stimulus to make it stand out relative to other stimuli is called
A) vividness
**B) salience**
C) accessibility
D) attention-seeking
196
You are having Sunday brunch with your friend at a quiet, family-friendly cafe when suddenly three cross-dressers enter and perform an aria usually sung by three famous tenors. Excited, you and your friend continue to discuss this event after the three artists have left because you
A) have discovered what a 'prototype' means
B) have just experienced an accentuation effect
C) have just perceived stimuli that are vivid
D) want to get similar outfits for the upcoming dress-up ball
You are having Sunday brunch with your friend at a quiet, family-friendly cafe when suddenly three cross-dressers enter and perform an aria usually sung by three famous tenors. Excited, you and your friend continue to discuss this event after the three artists have left because you
A) have discovered what a 'prototype' means
B) have just experienced an accentuation effect
**C) have just perceived stimuli that are vivid**
D) want to get similar outfits for the upcoming dress-up ball
197
Categories of stimuli that are accessible are those that are
A) recently learned
B) used in everyday life
C) in line with what we want or need
D) all of the above
Categories of stimuli that are accessible are those that are
A) recently learned
B) used in everyday life
C) in line with what we want or need
**D) all of the above**
198
In terms of our general impression of someone, we are more likely to recall information that is inconsistent, rather than consistent, with our impression. Why is this?
A) Because inconsistent information attracts attention and generates more cognition and thought, weakening memory retrieval routes
B) Because we don’t want to believe that our original impressions about someone are wrong
C) Because inconsistent information attracts attention and generates more cognition and thought, strengthening memory retrieval routes
D) Because cognitively it is easier to attend to information that is consistent with our original schema
In terms of our general impression of someone, we are more likely to recall information that is inconsistent, rather than consistent, with our impression. Why is this?
A) Because inconsistent information attracts attention and generates more cognition and thought, weakening memory retrieval routes
B) Because we don’t want to believe that our original impressions about someone are wrong
**C) Because inconsistent information attracts attention and generates more cognition and thought, strengthening memory retrieval routes**
D) Because cognitively it is easier to attend to information that is consistent with our original schema
199
Softly-spoken Dorothy is doing something very uncharacteristic in a public car park—assertively she tells someone who has just unpacked a shopping trolley to return it to 'its proper place'. You, as a close friend, are likely to
A) pay close attention to what is going on
B) attribute it to stress in Dorothy's private life
C) remember that Dorothy can be as assertive as yourself
D) forget about it at present, but store it up to think about it later
Softly-spoken Dorothy is doing something very uncharacteristic in a public car park—assertively she tells someone who has just unpacked a shopping trolley to return it to 'its proper place'. You, as a close friend, are likely to
**A) pay close attention to what is going on**
B) attribute it to stress in Dorothy's private life
C) remember that Dorothy can be as assertive as yourself
D) forget about it at present, but store it up to think about it later
200
According to Tracey, the living standard in Europe has improved since the establishment of the EU. She says she knows this because she has been reading about the EU in the local paper. Which heuristic bias is she likely to be using?
A) Regression
B) Representativeness
C) Anchoring
D) Availability
According to Tracey, the living standard in Europe has improved since the establishment of the EU. She says she knows this because she has been reading about the EU in the local paper. Which heuristic bias is she likely to be using?
A) Regression
B) Representativeness
C) Anchoring
**D) Availability**
201
Lauren does not consider herself to be very artistic or creative. When she meets Ben in her Introduction to Psychology class, and finds out he plays guitar, she may infer that he is extremely artistic. What cognitive heuristic is Lauren most likely to be using?
A) Availability
B) Anchoring
C) Representativeness
D) Prejudice
Lauren does not consider herself to be very artistic or creative. When she meets Ben in her Introduction to Psychology class, and finds out he plays guitar, she may infer that he is extremely artistic. What cognitive heuristic is Lauren most likely to be using?
A) Availability
**B) Anchoring**
C) Representativeness
D) Prejudice
202
According to Moscovici (1976), an important prerequisite for coercive compulsion and compliance is that the source of social influence is perceived by the target of social influence to have
A) power
B) positive emotion
C) an eloquent way of speaking
D) rewards for the target
According to Moscovici (1976), an important prerequisite for coercive compulsion and compliance is that the source of social influence is perceived by the target of social influence to have
**A) power**
B) positive emotion
C) an eloquent way of speaking
D) rewards for the target
203
'Compliance' refers to
A) a private and enduring change of attitudes and behaviour
B) voluntary adherence to the norms of a reference group
C) people's attempts to exhibit their group's prototypical behaviour
D) an external change in behaviour and in expressed attitudes
'Compliance' refers to
A) a private and enduring change of attitudes and behaviour
B) voluntary adherence to the norms of a reference group
C) people's attempts to exhibit their group's prototypical behaviour
**D) an external change in behaviour and in expressed attitudes**
204
A collection of individuals who are significant for a person's attitude and behaviour both in a positive as well as a negative sense is termed
A) a control group
B) a membership group
C) a reference group
D) a significance level
A collection of individuals who are significant for a person's attitude and behaviour both in a positive as well as a negative sense is termed
A) a control group
B) a membership group
**C) a reference group**
D) a significance level
205
Mr Swine is the owner of a new shoe factory. He can threaten, or even punish, his predominantly immigrant and female factory workers if they make mistakes. Mr Swine's power is
A) delegated
B) coercive
C) referent
D) illegitimate
Mr Swine is the owner of a new shoe factory. He can threaten, or even punish, his predominantly immigrant and female factory workers if they make mistakes. Mr Swine's power is
A) delegated
**B) coercive**
C) referent
D) illegitimate
206
While the process of controlling others through domination is referred to as power, the process of mobilising others to attain a common goal is referred to as
A) compliance
B) leadership
C) motivation
D) obedience
While the process of controlling others through domination is referred to as power, the process of mobilising others to attain a common goal is referred to as
A) compliance
**B) leadership**
C) motivation
D) obedience
207
One reason that people continued to administer electric shocks in Milgram’s study may be that the experiment starts with quite trivial shocks and, once the participant has committed themselves to giving shocks, it can be difficult for them to change their mind and not continue their commitment. This process
A) reflects the psychology of ‘sunk costs’
B) is similar to the foot-in-the-door technique of persuasion
C) both A and B
D) neither A nor B
One reason that people continued to administer electric shocks in Milgram’s study may be that the experiment starts with quite trivial shocks and, once the participant has committed themselves to giving shocks, it can be difficult for them to change their mind and not continue their commitment. This process
A) reflects the psychology of ‘sunk costs’
B) is similar to the foot-in-the-door technique of persuasion
**C) both A and B**
D) neither A nor B
208
When can obedience be beneficial?
A) In an emergency situation
B) When nurses blindly obey doctors’ orders
C) When conforming to peer pressure
D) Obedience can never be beneficial
When can obedience be beneficial?
**A) In an emergency situation**
B) When nurses blindly obey doctors’ orders
C) When conforming to peer pressure
D) Obedience can never be beneficial
209
In an early study, Allport (1924) noted that, as compared to individuals, people in groups make decisions that are
A) based on a continuum
B) based on previous decisions
C) less extreme
D) less conservative
In an early study, Allport (1924) noted that, as compared to individuals, people in groups make decisions that are
A) based on a continuum
B) based on previous decisions
**C) less extreme**
D) less conservative
210
A context that is relevant for making social comparisons is called a(n)
A) frame of reference
B) group task
C) prototype
D) experimental situation
A context that is relevant for making social comparisons is called a(n)
**A) frame of reference**
B) group task
C) prototype
D) experimental situation
211
When it comes to matters of taste, and when you are concerned about ‘fitting in’ with the group, group size will have a ___________ effect on conformity.
A) non-linear
B) linear
C) weak
D) null
When it comes to matters of taste, and when you are concerned about ‘fitting in’ with the group, group size will have a ___________ effect on conformity.
A) non-linear
**B) linear**
C) weak
D) null
212
The dual-process dependency model of social influence refers to both informational and normative influence. However, it has been challenged because
A) studies cannot be replicated
B) it overlooks the properties of the stimulus
C) personality differences are neglected
D) it disregards the role of group belongingness
The dual-process dependency model of social influence refers to both informational and normative influence. However, it has been challenged because
A) studies cannot be replicated
B) it overlooks the properties of the stimulus
C) personality differences are neglected
**D) it disregards the role of group belongingness**
213
Wayne has taken up surfing. Now he spends every free minute at the beach. He wears long baggy shorts, wrap-around sunglasses and has dyed blonde curls. In joining a 'world of surfies' he is responding to
A) majority pressure
B) referent informational influence
C) his personal disposition to conform
D) the latest fashion trend
Wayne has taken up surfing. Now he spends every free minute at the beach. He wears long baggy shorts, wrap-around sunglasses and has dyed blonde curls. In joining a 'world of surfies' he is responding to
A) majority pressure
**B) referent informational influence**
C) his personal disposition to conform
D) the latest fashion trend
214
The process of self-categorisation
A) leads to assimilation to the group norm
B) helps establish individuality
C) is based on a gregarious instinct
D) is described in Asch's conformity study
The process of self-categorisation
**A) leads to assimilation to the group norm**
B) helps establish individuality
C) is based on a gregarious instinct
D) is described in Asch's conformity study
215
Moscovici criticised the traditional perspective of social influence for its 'conformity bias'. This bias implies that
A) social influence works at multiple levels but with the same outcome
B) researchers interpret cultural adaptation as conformity
C) individuals always conform to majorities
D) intergroup convergence is interpreted as conformity
Moscovici criticised the traditional perspective of social influence for its 'conformity bias'. This bias implies that
A) social influence works at multiple levels but with the same outcome
B) researchers interpret cultural adaptation as conformity
**C) individuals always conform to majorities**
D) intergroup convergence is interpreted as conformity
216
The majority share the attitude that chocolate is the best flavour for ice-cream. However, I think vanilla ice-cream is the best. According to Nemeth’s ‘convergent-divergent’ theory, upon discovering that my attitude towards ice-cream flavours is in disagreement with that of the majority, I should feel \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. This will then lead to ____________ thinking.
A) surprise and stress; convergent
B) guilt and shame; divergent
C) surprise and stress; divergent
D) fear and relief; convergent
The majority share the attitude that chocolate is the best flavour for ice-cream. However, I think vanilla ice-cream is the best. According to Nemeth’s ‘convergent-divergent’ theory, upon discovering that my attitude towards ice-cream flavours is in disagreement with that of the majority, I should feel \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. This will then lead to ____________ thinking.
**A) surprise and stress; convergent**
B) guilt and shame; divergent
C) surprise and stress; divergent
D) fear and relief; convergent
