Social identity and social attribution Flashcards
(189 cards)
1
Q
Define
Narcissism
A
The combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others
2
Q
Define
Misattribution of Arousal
A
The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
3
Q
Define
Upward Social Comparison
A
Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
4
Q
Define
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
A
The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception proces in which people first experience physiological arousal anthen seek an appropriate explanation for it
5
Q
Define
Two-Step Attribution Process
A
Analysing another person’s behaviour first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behaviour, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution
6
Q
Define
Terror Management Theory
A
The theory that holds that self-esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about their own mortality
7
Q
Define
Thin-Slicing
A
Drawing meaningful conclusions about another person’s personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behaviour
8
Q
Define
Task-Contingent Rewards
A
Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done
9
Q
Define
Social Tuning
A
The process whereby people adopt another person’s attitude
10
Q
Define
Social Perception
A
The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people
11
Q
Define
Self-Serving Attributions
A
Explanation for one’s successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one’s failures that blame external, situational factors
12
Q
Define
Self-Perception Theory
A
The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these atates by observing our behaviour and the situation in which it occurs
13
Q
Define
Social Comparison Theory
A
The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
14
Q
Define
Self-Concept
A
The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes
15
Q
Define
Self-Handicapping
A
The strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves
16
Q
Define
Self-Esteem
A
People’s evauations of their own self-worth - that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent
17
Q
Define
Self-Awareness Theory
A
The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behaviour to their internal standards and values
18
Q
Define
Reasons-Generated Attitude Change
A
Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one’s attitudes; people assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalise
19
Q
Define
Overjustification Effect
A
The tendency for people to view their behaviour as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons
20
Q
Define
Performance-Contingent Rewards
A
Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task
21
Q
Define
Perceptual Salience
A
The seeming importance of information that is the focus of people’s attention
22
Q
Define
Nonverbal Communication
A
The way in which people communication, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; these cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and gaze
23
Q
Define
Introspection
A
The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
24
Q
Define
Intrinisic Motivation
A
The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures
25
# Define
Internal Attribution
The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality
26
# Define
Interdependent View of the Self
A way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationshops to other people, recognising that one's behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other
27
# Define
Ingratiation
The process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status
28
# Define
Independent View of the Self
A way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feeling, and actions of other people
29
# Define
Implementation Intentions
People's specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal
30
# Define
Growth Mind-Set
The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
31
# Define
Extrinsic Motivation
The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting
32
# Define
Fixed Mind-Set
The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
33
# Define
External Attribution
The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation
34
# Define
Emblems
Nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definition within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations. such as the OK sign
35
# Define
Encode
To express or emit nonverbal behaviour, such as smiling or patting someone on the back
36
# Define
Decode
To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behaviour other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness
37
# Define
Distinctiveness Information
Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli
38
# Define
Downward Social Comparison
Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
39
# Define
Display Rules
Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviours are appropriate to display
40
# Define
Covariation Model
A theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behaviour, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether the behaviour occurs
41
# Define
Consensus Information
Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does
42
# Define
Consistency Information
Information about the extent to which the behaviour between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances
43
# Define
Causal Theories
Theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviours; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., "absence makes the heart grow fonder")
44
# Define
Belief in a Just World
A form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people
45
# Define
Bias Blind Spot
The tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are
46
# Define
Belief Perserverance
The tendency to stick with an initial judgment even in the face of new information that should prompt us to reconsider
47
# Define
Attribution Theory
A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behaviour
48
# Define
Affect Blends
Facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion
49
# Define
Affective Forecasts
People's predictions about how they will feel in response to a future emotional event
50
# Define
Affective Forecasting
The extent to which people can predict the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to future events
51
# Define
Impression management
the attempt to manipulate others' impressions through "the selective exposure of some information... coupled with suppression of [other] information"
52
# Define
Mean
The average score on a scale, calculated by adding everyone's scores anc dividing by the number of scores
53
# Define
Primacy effect
the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence
54
# Define
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
a device that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow
55
# Define
Percentile score
The percentage of people someone scores higher than on a scale or test; a score at the 90th ______ means someone scores higher than 90% of the people who took the scale
56
# Definition
The combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others
Narcissism
57
# Definition
The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
Misattribution of Arousal
58
# Definition
Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
Upward Social Comparison
59
# Definition
The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception proces in which people first experience physiological arousal anthen seek an appropriate explanation for it
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
60
# Definition
Analysing another person's behaviour first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behaviour, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution
Two-Step Attribution Process
61
# Definition
The theory that holds that self-esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about their own mortality
Terror Management Theory
62
# Definition
Drawing meaningful conclusions about another person's personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behaviour
Thin-Slicing
63
# Definition
Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done
Task-Contingent Rewards
64
# Definition
The process whereby people adopt another person's attitude
Social Tuning
65
# Definition
The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people
Social Perception
66
# Definition
Explanation for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors
Self-Serving Attributions
67
# Definition
The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these atates by observing our behaviour and the situation in which it occurs
Self-Perception Theory
68
# Definition
The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
Social Comparison Theory
69
# Definition
The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes
Self-Concept
70
# Definition
The strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves
Self-Handicapping
71
# Definition
People's evauations of their own self-worth - that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent
Self-Esteem
72
# Definition
The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behaviour to their internal standards and values
Self-Awareness Theory
73
# Definition
Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one's attitudes; people assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalise
Reasons-Generated Attitude Change
74
# Definition
The tendency for people to view their behaviour as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons
Overjustification Effect
75
# Definition
Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task
Performance-Contingent Rewards
76
# Definition
The seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention
Perceptual Salience
77
# Definition
The way in which people communication, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; these cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and gaze
Nonverbal Communication
78
# Definition
The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
Introspection
79
# Definition
The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures
Intrinisic Motivation
80
# Definition
The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality
Internal Attribution
81
# Definition
A way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationshops to other people, recognising that one's behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other
Interdependent View of the Self
82
# Definition
The process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status
Ingratiation
83
# Definition
A way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feeling, and actions of other people
Independent View of the Self
84
# Definition
People's specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal
Implementation Intentions
85
# Definition
The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
Growth Mind-Set
86
# Definition
The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting
Extrinsic Motivation
87
# Definition
The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
Fixed Mind-Set
88
# Definition
The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation
External Attribution
89
# Definition
Nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definition within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations. such as the OK sign
Emblems
90
# Definition
To express or emit nonverbal behaviour, such as smiling or patting someone on the back
Encode
91
# Definition
To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behaviour other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness
Decode
92
# Definition
Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli
Distinctiveness Information
93
# Definition
Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
Downward Social Comparison
94
# Definition
Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviours are appropriate to display
Display Rules
95
# Definition
A theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behaviour, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether the behaviour occurs
Covariation Model
96
# Definition
Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does
Consensus Information
97
# Definition
Information about the extent to which the behaviour between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances
Consistency Information
98
# Definition
Theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviours; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., "absence makes the heart grow fonder")
Causal Theories
99
# Definition
A form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people
Belief in a Just World
100
# Definition
The tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are
Bias Blind Spot
101
# Definition
The tendency to stick with an initial judgment even in the face of new information that should prompt us to reconsider
Belief Perserverance
102
# Definition
A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behaviour
Attribution Theory
103
# Definition
Facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion
Affect Blends
104
# Definition
People's predictions about how they will feel in response to a future emotional event
Affective Forecasts
105
# Definition
The extent to which people can predict the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to future events
Affective Forecasting
106
# Definition
the attempt to manipulate others' impressions through "the selective exposure of some information... coupled with suppression of [other] information"
Impression management
107
# Definition
The average score on a scale, calculated by adding everyone's scores anc dividing by the number of scores
Mean
108
# Definition
the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence
Primacy effect
109
# Definition
a device that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
110
# Definition
The percentage of people someone scores higher than on a scale or test; a score at the 90th ______ means someone scores higher than 90% of the people who took the scale
Percentile score
111
What is social perception?
The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people
112
What are some examples of non-verbal communication?
* Facial expressions
* Tone of voice
* Gestures
* Body position
* Movement
* Use of touch
* Gaze
113
What is arguably the most important form of nonverbal communication?
Facial expressions
114
Are facial expressions of emotion universal?
Yes, for the sox major emotional expressions
## Footnote
*Anger, joy, surprise, fear, disgust and sadness*
115
What is the cultural significance of nonverbal expression of pride?
The nonverbal expression of pride, involving facial expression, posture and gesture, is encoded and decoded cross-culturally
116
What is an affect blend?
Facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion
117
What are display rules?
Culture-specific rules that dictate what kinds of emotional expressions people are supposed to show
118
How do people from America and Japan differ in terms of display of emotion?
America: men discouraged from emotional displays like crying, but women allowed
Japan: women discouraged from displaying uninhibited smile
119
How do people from America and Thailand differ in terms of eye contact?
America: suspicious when people do not “look them in the eye”
Nigeria, Puerto Rico, Thailand: direct eye contact considered disrespectful
120
How do people from America and the Middle East differ in terms of personal space?
America: like bubble of personal space
Middle East, South America, southern
121
True or False:
Emblems are not universal
True
122
How quick can first impressions form?
Less than 100 milliseconds
123
At what age do we start judging someone based on first impressions?
As young as 3
124
What is thin-slicing?
Drawing meaningful conclusions about another person's personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behaviour
125
Who propose Attribution theory?
Fritz Heider
126
What does Attribution theory explain?
The way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behaviour
127
When do we form an attribution?
When we don't already know the cause of the behaviour
128
What are the two types of attribution?
Internal attribution
External attribution
129
In a happy couple, what type of attribution would we use to explain our partner's positive and negative behaviours?
Positive: Internal - "she helped me because she's such a generous person"
Negative: External - "he said something mean because he's so stressed at work this week"
130
In an unhappy couple, what type of attribution would we use to explain our partner's positive and negative behaviours?
Positive: External - "she helped me because she wanted to impress our friends"
Negative: Internal - "he said something mean because he's a totally self-centered jerk"
131
What three types of information can we use to determine whether a internal or external attribution is necessary?
1. Consensus Information
* The extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does
2. Distinctiveness Information
* The extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli
3. Consistency Information
* The extent to which the behaviour between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances
132
Based on the three relevant information types, when do we make internal attributions?
Internal attribution occurs when:
* Consensus = Low
* behaviour is unique to the person
* Distinctiveness = Low
* Person displays same behaviour with different targets and in different situations
* Consistency = High
* The person’s behaviour occurs reliably across occasions
133
Based on the three relevant information types, when do we make external attributions?
External attribution occurs when:
* Consensus = High
* Other people behave similarly in the same situation
* Distinctiveness = High
* The person’s behaviour is specific to that situation or target
* Consistency = High
* The person’s behaviour occurs reliably across occasions
134
If a behaviour is low in consistency, according to the covariation model, what cause will people give to that behaviour?
People are likely to think it was something peculiar about the particular circumstances
135
People have a general tendency to attribute their own __________ behaviours to dispositions (self‐ enhancing bias) and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_behaviours to the environment (self‐protecting bias),
People have a general tendency to attribute their own **positive** behaviours to dispositions (self‐ enhancing bias) and **negative** behaviours to the environment (self‐protecting bias),
136
What is a bias blind spot?
Tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases
137
What are the cultural difference in the Fundamental Attribution Error for members of individualistic cultures?
* Prefer dispositional attributions
* Think like personality psychologists
138
What are the cultural difference in the Fundamental Attribution Error for members of collectivistic cultures?
* Prefer situational explanations
* Think like social psychologists
139
In which culture is the self-serving bias more prevalent?
More prevalent in Western, individualistic cultures than Eastern collectivist cultures
140
In which culture is the belief in a just world more prevalent?
More prevalent in cultures with extreme differences in wealth
141
Describe the origins and nature of the self-concept
Development
* Rudimentary Self‐Concept
* Some primates
* Humans at 18 to 24 months
* Child’s self‐concept
* Concrete
* References to characteristics like age, sex, neighbourhood, and hobbies
* Maturing self‐concept
* Less emphasis on physical characteristics
* More emphasis on psychological states and how other people judge us
142
Are Westerners more likely to have a independent or interdependent view of the self?
Independent
143
What are the two types of views of the self?
Independent
Interdependent
144
What are the four main functions of the self?
1. Self‐knowledge
* The way we understand who we are and organize this information
2. Self Control
* The way we make plans and execute decisions
3. Impression management
* The way we present ourselves to others and get them to see us as we want to be seen
4. Self‐esteem
* The way we maintain positive views of ourselves
145
What methods do people use to turn off "internal spotlight" on oneself?
Alcohol abuse
Binge eating
Sexual masochism
Religion/spirituality
146
Which theory explains why we observe our behaviour to understand how we feel?
Self-perception theory
147
What are the two types of motivation?
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
148
What are the two-factors of the two-factor theory of emotion?
Arousal and cognition
149
Who proposed the two-factor theory of emotion?
Stanley Schachter
150
What does the two-factor theory of emotion propose about how we experience emotion?
We experience emotions in a two‐step self‐perception process:
* Experience physiological arousal.
* Seek an appropriate explanation for it
151
What are the Implications of the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion?
* Emotions are somewhat arbitrary.
* Emotions depend on our explanations for arousal.
152
Which theory describes how we compare ourselve to others in order to know more about ourselves?
Social comparison theory
153
When do people engage in social comparison?
* No objective standard exists to measure against
* When we experience uncertainty
154
During social comparison, who do you initially compare yourself with?
Anyone who is around
155
What are the pros and cons of having high self-esteem?
Pros:
* Protects us against thoughts about our own mortality (terror management theory).
* Motivates us to persevere when the going gets though.
Cons:
* Too much self‐esteem can lead to narcissism (increase in narcissism in the past 30 years).
* Spending money on others made people happier compared to spending money on oneself
156
Theories of attribution
A) are based on criminal psychology
B) cannot be falsified
C) are theories of causal inference
D) are forms of cognitive heuristics
Theories of attribution
A) are based on criminal psychology
B) cannot be falsified
**C) are theories of causal inference**
D) are forms of cognitive heuristics
157
2) Which of the following is NOT a major theory of attribution?
A) Bem's theory of self-perception
B) Rogers' protection motivation theory
C) Heider's theory of naïve psychology
D) Schachter's theory of emotional lability
2) Which of the following is NOT a major theory of attribution?
A) Bem's theory of self-perception
**B) Rogers' protection motivation theory**
C) Heider's theory of naïve psychology
D) Schachter's theory of emotional lability
158
3) Heider and Simmel’s (1994) ingenious experiment in which people who were asked to describe the movement of abstract geometric figures described them as if they were humans with intentions to act in certain ways demonstrates that
A) humans tend to look for causes and reasons for behaviour, and use causal language to comment or explain phenomena
B) humans think everything has human properties, even inanimate objects
C) humans view themselves as geometric shapes
D) humans can project their own personalities onto inanimate objects, including geometric figures
3) Heider and Simmel’s (1994) ingenious experiment in which people who were asked to describe the movement of abstract geometric figures described them as if they were humans with intentions to act in certain ways demonstrates that
**A) humans tend to look for causes and reasons for behaviour, and use causal language to comment or explain phenomena**
B) humans think everything has human properties, even inanimate objects
C) humans view themselves as geometric shapes
D) humans can project their own personalities onto inanimate objects, including geometric figures
159
4) According to Heider (1958), an example of a dispositional factor is
A) a transient emotion
B) a group norm
C) ability
D) none of the above
4) According to Heider (1958), an example of a dispositional factor is
A) a transient emotion
B) a group norm
**C) ability**
D) none of the above
160
5) In making a correspondent inference, when we attribute someone's behaviour to internal causes, we check that the behaviour
A) could not be explained as being socially desirable
B) affected us directly
C) was chosen freely
D) all of the above
5) In making a correspondent inference, when we attribute someone's behaviour to internal causes, we check that the behaviour
A) could not be explained as being socially desirable
B) affected us directly
C) was chosen freely
**D) all of the above**
161
6) According to Schachter, a person's state of depression can be turned into a feeling of wellbeing. This is
A) because people's emotions depend on how they label them
B) a result of cognitive inconsistency
C) clearly wrong
D) a result of temporary drug treatment with subsequent psychotherapy
6) According to Schachter, a person's state of depression can be turned into a feeling of wellbeing. This is
**A) because people's emotions depend on how they label them**
B) a result of cognitive inconsistency
C) clearly wrong
D) a result of temporary drug treatment with subsequent psychotherapy
162
7) Self-perception theory implies that we
A) infer what and how we are by observing what we do
B) believe that people usually 'get what's coming to them'
C) take careful note of what others think
D) have a good sense of what is ideal
7) Self-perception theory implies that we
**A) infer what and how we are by observing what we do**
B) believe that people usually 'get what's coming to them'
C) take careful note of what others think
D) have a good sense of what is ideal
163
8) Tom thinks he has just failed an exam. However, he reasons that the class results will be scaled up as the lecturer asked very difficult questions. What kind of attribution has Tom just made?
A) An external-stable one
B) An internal-stable one
C) An external-unstable one
D) An internal-unstable one
8) Tom thinks he has just failed an exam. However, he reasons that the class results will be scaled up as the lecturer asked very difficult questions. What kind of attribution has Tom just made?
A) An external-stable one
B) An internal-stable one
**C) An external-unstable one**
D) An internal-unstable one
164
9) Individuals who are fatalistic and do not believe that they have much control over what happens to them are prone to
A) negative self-perception
B) multiple accidents
C) an external attributional style
D) disaster
9) Individuals who are fatalistic and do not believe that they have much control over what happens to them are prone to
A) negative self-perception
B) multiple accidents
**C) an external attributional style**
D) disaster
165
10) With respect to how attributions are made, a cognitive miser is a person who
A) usually has a poorly formed self-concept
B) habitually uses cognitive heuristics
C) has a well-concealed locus of control
D) is mistrustful of the motives of others
10) With respect to how attributions are made, a cognitive miser is a person who
A) usually has a poorly formed self-concept
**B) habitually uses cognitive heuristics**
C) has a well-concealed locus of control
D) is mistrustful of the motives of others
166
11) 'Other people are always fully responsible for what they do', says Mary. Mary's philosophy is an example of the
A) ultimate attribution error
B) self-serving bias
C) self-fulfilling prophecy
D) fundamental attribution error
11) 'Other people are always fully responsible for what they do', says Mary. Mary's philosophy is an example of the
A) ultimate attribution error
B) self-serving bias
C) self-fulfilling prophecy
**D) fundamental attribution error**
167
12) According to the actor-observer effect, actors tend to attribute their actions to ________ factors.
A) situational
B) internal
C) unstable
D) dispositional
12) According to the actor-observer effect, actors tend to attribute their actions to ________ factors.
**A) situational**
B) internal
C) unstable
D) dispositional
168
13) Bill writes in the student newspaper 'The main library needs a total cleanout; there are far too many books and journals. I'm sure you all agree!' Bill is probably a victim of
A) the stimulus overload effect
B) the false consensus effect
C) regression-to-the-mean bias
D) the availability heuristic
13) Bill writes in the student newspaper 'The main library needs a total cleanout; there are far too many books and journals. I'm sure you all agree!' Bill is probably a victim of
A) the stimulus overload effect
**B) the false consensus effect**
C) regression-to-the-mean bias
D) the availability heuristic
169
14) Hugo claims 'I am an A grade student! The only reason I get Cs is because the lecturer is boring.' You smile wryly at Hugo's
A) ultimate attribution error
B) differential forgetting
C) self-fulfilling prophecy
D) self-serving bias
14) Hugo claims 'I am an A grade student! The only reason I get Cs is because the lecturer is boring.' You smile wryly at Hugo's
A) ultimate attribution error
B) differential forgetting
C) self-fulfilling prophecy
**D) self-serving bias**
170
15) 'She had popped a party pill and she was really rocking, so of course the guy took advantage of her!' This explanation is a straightforward case of
A) 'boys being boys'
B) an external attribution
C) belief in a just world
D) 'girls being silly'
15) 'She had popped a party pill and she was really rocking, so of course the guy took advantage of her!' This explanation is a straightforward case of
A) 'boys being boys'
B) an external attribution
**C) belief in a just world**
D) 'girls being silly'
171
16) Intergroup attributions include attributions for performance that are consistent with
A) sex stereotypes only
B) both sex and racial stereotypes
C) racial stereotypes only
D) neither sex nor racial stereotypes
16) Intergroup attributions include attributions for performance that are consistent with
A) sex stereotypes only
**B) both sex and racial stereotypes**
C) racial stereotypes only
D) neither sex nor racial stereotypes
172
17) The ultimate attribution error refers to attributions made for
A) ingroup behaviour only
B) both ingroup and outgroup behaviour
C) neither ingroup nor outgroup behaviour
D) outgroup behaviour only
17) The ultimate attribution error refers to attributions made for
A) ingroup behaviour only
B) both ingroup and outgroup behaviour
C) neither ingroup nor outgroup behaviour
**D) outgroup behaviour only**
173
18) Who is responsible for violence in Palestine? Benjamin blames the Palestinians, but Hanif blames the Israelis. Benjamin and Hanif are
A) making an ethnocentric intergroup attribution
B) following the tit-for-tat rule
C) showing the actor-observer effect
D) establishing an illusory correlation
18) Who is responsible for violence in Palestine? Benjamin blames the Palestinians, but Hanif blames the Israelis. Benjamin and Hanif are
**A) making an ethnocentric intergroup attribution**
B) following the tit-for-tat rule
C) showing the actor-observer effect
D) establishing an illusory correlation
174
19) Elaborated explanations of unfamiliar and complex phenomena that transform them into the familiar and simple and are shared among group members are referred to as
A) scripts
B) the collective conscious
C) stereotypes
D) social representations
19) Elaborated explanations of unfamiliar and complex phenomena that transform them into the familiar and simple and are shared among group members are referred to as
A) scripts
B) the collective conscious
C) stereotypes
**D) social representations**
175
20) Self and identity are
A) components of behaviour
B) mental fictions
C) operational definitions
D) cognitive constructs influencing how we perceive socially and interact with others
20) Self and identity are
A) components of behaviour
B) mental fictions
C) operational definitions
**D) cognitive constructs influencing how we perceive socially and interact with others**
176
21) What did Shrauger and Schoeneman (1979) and Tice (1992) find out about the idea of the ‘looking-glass self’?
A) It should not have been termed ‘the looking-glass self’ but ‘the mirror-image self’
B) People do not tend to see themselves as others see them, but instead as they think others see them
C) They confirmed that people always see themselves as others see them
D) Nothing, Shrauger and Shoeneman (1979) and Tice (1992) did not do research into the idea of the ‘looking-glass self’
21) What did Shrauger and Schoeneman (1979) and Tice (1992) find out about the idea of the ‘looking-glass self’?
A) It should not have been termed ‘the looking-glass self’ but ‘the mirror-image self’
**B) People do not tend to see themselves as others see them, but instead as they think others see them**
C) They confirmed that people always see themselves as others see them
D) Nothing, Shrauger and Shoeneman (1979) and Tice (1992) did not do research into the idea of the ‘looking-glass self’
177
22) According to self-discrepancy theory, how we think we should be refers to
A) the ‘ought’ self
B) the actual self
C) the superego self
D) the ideal self
22) According to self-discrepancy theory, how we think we should be refers to
**A) the ‘ought’ self**
B) the actual self
C) the superego self
D) the ideal self
178
23) Bem's self-perception theory maintains that people construct an impression of their own personality by
A) deciding that their locus of control is external
B) separating their actual self from their ideal and 'ought' selves
C) attributing their behaviour internally
D) averaging out all of their social comparisons
23) Bem's self-perception theory maintains that people construct an impression of their own personality by
A) deciding that their locus of control is external
B) separating their actual self from their ideal and 'ought' selves
**C) attributing their behaviour internally**
D) averaging out all of their social comparisons
179
24) According to the overjustification effect, performance on a task may be improved by
A) yelling at someone until they complete the task
B) setting performance goals, and rewarding for good performance
C) appealing to a person’s ideal self
D) giving many rewards for completing the task
24) According to the overjustification effect, performance on a task may be improved by
A) yelling at someone until they complete the task
**B) setting performance goals, and rewarding for good performance**
C) appealing to a person’s ideal self
D) giving many rewards for completing the task
180
25) Festinger's theory of social comparison implies that people
A) learn from their errors by asking others what they think
B) compare the qualities of various groups before choosing one to join
C) check their perceptions and attitudes against others who are similar to them
D) counteract potential criticism by undermining their 'enemies'
25) Festinger's theory of social comparison implies that people
A) learn from their errors by asking others what they think
B) compare the qualities of various groups before choosing one to join
**C) check their perceptions and attitudes against others who are similar to them**
D) counteract potential criticism by undermining their 'enemies'
181
26) Millie is a member of a youth group. She is proud of this and feels she is a better person as a result. She is a living example of
A) self-perception theory
B) the self-evaluation maintenance model
C) the overjustification effect
D) how self-categorisation theory works
26) Millie is a member of a youth group. She is proud of this and feels she is a better person as a result. She is a living example of
A) self-perception theory
B) the self-evaluation maintenance model
C) the overjustification effect
**D) how self-categorisation theory works**
182
27) According to Brewer and Gardner (1996), part of our self-concept consists of dyadic relationships that assimilate our self to significant others. This part is called the
A) collective self
B) social self
C) relational self
D) individual self
27) According to Brewer and Gardner (1996), part of our self-concept consists of dyadic relationships that assimilate our self to significant others. This part is called the
A) collective self
B) social self
**C) relational self**
D) individual self
183
28) At a girls' summer camp Maria has just been assigned to a group called the 'Rosebuds', one of six separate groups that will interact from time to time at the camp. It is likely that if she needs to make a decision about allocating rewards, she will
A) discriminate against children who are not Rosebuds
B) want all other children to be Rosebuds
C) not care what group any girl might be in
D) wilt and go limp, as a Rosebud would
28) At a girls' summer camp Maria has just been assigned to a group called the 'Rosebuds', one of six separate groups that will interact from time to time at the camp. It is likely that if she needs to make a decision about allocating rewards, she will
**A) discriminate against children who are not Rosebuds**
B) want all other children to be Rosebuds
C) not care what group any girl might be in
D) wilt and go limp, as a Rosebud would
184
29) Which motive is a simple desire to have accurate and valid information about oneself?
A) Self-enhancement
B) Self-affirmation
C) Self-righteousness
D) Self-assessment
29) Which motive is a simple desire to have accurate and valid information about oneself?
A) Self-enhancement
B) Self-affirmation
C) Self-righteousness
**D) Self-assessment**
185
30) Sandra has just received a bad result in her language paper. After telling her parents, she points to her achievement in a recent swimming competition. Steele (1988) calls this strategy
A) self-affirmation
B) achievement motivation
C) BIRGing
D) self-verification
30) Sandra has just received a bad result in her language paper. After telling her parents, she points to her achievement in a recent swimming competition. Steele (1988) calls this strategy
**A) self-affirmation**
B) achievement motivation
C) BIRGing
D) self-verification
186
31) A friend describes you as 'unusual' to a new member of the bowling club. You would be maintaining a positive self-image if you
A) hoped that no one else would find out
B) worried yourself sick and vowed not to be 'unusual' in the future
C) defined 'unusual' as a cool thing to be
D) restored equity by telling the new member that your friend was 'a handful'
31) A friend describes you as 'unusual' to a new member of the bowling club. You would be maintaining a positive self-image if you
A) hoped that no one else would find out
B) worried yourself sick and vowed not to be 'unusual' in the future
**C) defined 'unusual' as a cool thing to be**
D) restored equity by telling the new member that your friend was 'a handful'
187
32) Greenberg and colleagues suggested that one reason why people pursue self-esteem is to
A) avoid social rejection
B) overcome their fear of death
C) succeed in their careers
D) protect the ego from the superego
32) Greenberg and colleagues suggested that one reason why people pursue self-esteem is to
A) avoid social rejection
**B) overcome their fear of death**
C) succeed in their careers
D) protect the ego from the superego
188
33) Which of the strategies below is NOT associated with the psychology of impression management?
A) Strategic self-presentation
B) Expressive self-presentation
C) Impressive self-description
D) Self-monitoring
33) Which of the strategies below is NOT associated with the psychology of impression management?
A) Strategic self-presentation
B) Expressive self-presentation
**C) Impressive self-description**
D) Self-monitoring
189
34) Studies suggest that people in Western cultures conceptualise the self as _________ while people in Eastern cultures tend to conceptualise the self as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A) independent; interdependent
B) ingroup; outgroup
C) materialistic; cultural
D) none of the above
34) Studies suggest that people in Western cultures conceptualise the self as _________ while people in Eastern cultures tend to conceptualise the self as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
**A) independent; interdependent**
B) ingroup; outgroup
C) materialistic; cultural
D) none of the above
