Learning Flashcards
This section comprises 3–5% of the Psychology GRE subject test. When finished with this deck, you should have a better understanding of the following: Classical Conditioning, Instrumental Conditioning, Observational Learning, Modeling, Theories, Applications, and Issues.
Define:
learning
relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience
What are the three theories for learning?
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
- cognitive learning
Define:
classical conditioning
learning that takes place when two stimuli, one conditioned and one unconditioned, are presented together to induce the same response
For example, Pavlov rang a bell when he was going to feed his dogs. The dogs would naturally salivate when food was presented to them, but over time when Pavlov rang his bell his dogs would salivate even without the presence of food.
Define acquisition as it relates to classical conditioning.
passively learning to give a known response to a new stimulus
Define stimulus as it relates to classical conditioning.
change in the environment that brings about a response
Define response as it relates to classical conditioning.
reaction to a stimulus
Stimuli that increase the likelihood of a behavior are called __________.
reinforcers
Identify the stimulus and the response:
When you put food in your mouth, you salivate.
- stimulus: food
- response: salivation
What was the premise of Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment?
Dogs salivate at the sight of food because they form associations with food and events preceding eating the food. Pavlov sounded a bell right before presenting food, so the dogs would ultimately salivate at the sound of the bell.
Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:
neutral stimulus (NS)
stimulus that initially does not elicit a response until it becomes CS
Pavlov’s example: The NS is the bell because it does not produce salivation until it is paired with the food.
Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:
unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)
reflexively, automatically brings about a response
Pavlov’s example: Food is the UCS because it automatically brings about salivation.
Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:
unconditioned response (UCR or UR)
automatic, involuntary reaction to the unconditioned stimulus
Pavlov’s example: The UCR is salivation because the dogs automatically salivate when they eat food.
Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:
conditioned stimulus (CS)
starts as neutral stimulus, but when paired with UCS, eventually brings about the conditioned response
Pavlov’s example: The CS is the bell because, when paired with the food, it brought about salivation.
Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:
conditioned response (CR)
learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
Pavlov’s example: Salivation is the CR because the dog learned to salivate in response to the bell.
How is delayed conditioning timed?
A conditioned stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus. The greater the delay, the less likely conditioning is to occur.
Pavlov’s example: The bell rings just before food is presented.
How is trace conditioning timed?
neutral stimulus is presented and then taken away before the unconditioned stimulus appears
Pavlov’s example: Bell rings, followed by a long time lapse, then food is presented.
How is simultaneous conditioning timed?
neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are presented together at the same time
Pavlov’s example: The bell rings and food is presented at the same time.
How is backward conditioning timed?
unconditioned stimulus is presented before the neutral stimulus
Pavlov’s example: Food is presented before the bell rings.
What researcher(s) were behind the Little Albert experiment?
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner
Explain the Little Albert classical conditioning experiment.
- conditioned a nine-month-old baby named Albert to fear a rat
- Albert wouldn’t cry from the sight of the rat, but cried from loud noise
- loud noise was played when Albert reached for the rat
- Albert eventually cried at sight of the rat
Identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in the Little Albert experiment.
- UCS: loud noise
- UCR: fear
- CS: white rat
- CR: fear
Define in terms of classical conditioning:
extinction
elimination of the CR through presenting the CS without the UCS repeatedly
Pavlov’s example: ring bell without food, dog will not salivate from bell
Little Albert: present rat without loud noise, baby will not cry from rat
Define in terms of classical conditioning:
spontaneous recovery
original response disappears and then returns later on
Pavlov’s example: salivation from bell stops and then returns
Little Albert: baby stops crying from presence of rat and then begins again
Define in terms of classical conditioning:
generalization
stimuli similar to the CS elicit the CR without any new conditioning
Pavlov’s example: dog salivates from bells with different tones, pitches, or lengths
Little Albert: baby cries from other white fluffy stimuli, such as white bunnies or cotton balls
Define in terms of classical conditioning:
discrimination
CR is only produced by the presence of the CS because other stimuli is too dissimilar
Pavlov’s example: dog will not salivate to a doorbell or telephone ring
Little Albert: baby will not cry at presence of a black rat
What is higher-order (a.k.a. second-order) conditioning?
learning which occurs when a previously learned CS is now used as the US to produce a CR to a new stimulus
Example: Flashing a light before Pavlov’s bell would train the dogs to salivate from only the light.
Define:
operant conditioning
learning that occurs when a subject performs certain voluntary behavior, and the consequences of the behavior determine the likelihood of its recurrence
How did Edward Thorndike contribute to research on operant conditioning?
- put cats in puzzle boxes to demonstrate trial and error in obtaining a fish
- coined the terms “instrumental learning” and “Law of Effect”
Through operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, and behavior that is punished will rarely occur.
What is instrumental learning?
Thorndike’s term for type of associative learning where a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequence
Explain the Law of Effect.
- behaviors followed by a positive consequence are strengthened and more likely to occur
- behaviors followed by a negative consequence are weakened and less likely to occur
- concluded by Edward Thorndike
What is a Skinner box?
operant conditioning chamber for research animals, designed by B.F. Skinner, that contained levers, food dispensers, lights, and an electrified grid
What are the four training procedures of B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning?
- positive reinforcement
- negative reinforcement
- positive punishment
- negative punishment
Define in terms of operant conditioning:
positive reinforcement
reward training where a behavior is followed by a reinforcer that increases the probability that the behavior will occur again
Example: praise after participating in class
What is the Premack principle?
type of positive reinforcement where a more probable behavior is used as a reinforcer for a less probable one
Example: treating yourself to an hour of TV after spending three hours studying for an exam
Define in terms of operant conditioning:
negative reinforcement
removing an unpleasant consequence
Example: kid does his chores to avoid getting yelled at
What are avoidance and escape behaviors?
- avoidance behavior: takes away the aversive stimulus before it begins
- escape behavior: takes away the aversive stimulus after it has already started
Define in terms of operant conditioning:
punishment
unpleasant consequence that follows a voluntary behavior, decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated; a.k.a. positive punishment
Example: spanking a child for misbehaving
Define in terms of operant conditioning:
omission training
removing a rewarding consequence following a voluntary behavior, decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated
Example: taking away a child’s toy after misbehaving
What is aversive conditioning?
learning that involves an unpleasant stimulus or reinforcer, such as negative reinforcement and punishment
Define:
learned helplessness
state of feeling powerless to change yourself or your situation because of a prior inability to avoid an aversive event
What are the three types of reinforcers?
- primary
- secondary
- generalized
Define and give an example of:
primary reinforcers
- something that is biologically, naturally important and therefore rewarding
- Example: food and drink