Learning And Memory

Question 1

What is learning?

Answer 1

Acquisition of new info

Question 2

What is memory?

Answer 2

Retention of new info

Question 3

What are the types of memory?

Answer 3

Procedural (implicit, non-declarative, reflexive)

Declarative (explicit)

Working (recall)

Question 4

How is memory classified in terms of time?

Answer 4

Short term

Long term

Question 5

What is procedural memory for?

Example?

Answer 5

‣ Skills and habits used so much they are automatic, motor sequences is memorized
‣ I.e bike riding

Question 6

What are the anatomical substrates involved with procedural memory?

Function of each?

Answer 6

• Cerebellum: motor skills

* Nucleus Accumbens: non-motor

Question 7

What is declarative memory for?

Example?

Answer 7

‣ Conscious recognition/recollection of learned facts and experiences

I.e. the fact you learned for test; events/facts stored in memory

Question 8

What is declarative memory subdivided into?

Answer 8

Episodic

Semantic

Question 9

What is episodic memory?

Answer 9

Memory of events

Question 10

What is semantic memory?

Answer 10

Memory of words, language, and rules

Question 11

How long does short term memory last?

Answer 11

Seconds to hours

Question 12

What is working memory?

Example?

Answer 12

Recall a fact/memory for use

‣ I.e. recall a fact for use in test question (very much like short term- actually a subset)

Question 13

What does the production of memory and learning require?

Answer 13

Induction of neuronal and synaptic plasticity

Question 14

What is plasticity?

Mechanism?

Answer 14

Alterations in CNS based on use

Change to Synaptic function
Change to Physical structure of neuron

Question 15

What changes to synaptic function could be made for plasticity?

Answer 15

Post-tetanic potentiation

Long term potentiation (LTP)

Question 16

What changes to the physical structure of neurons could occur as a result of plasticity?

Answer 16

• Gain/loss synapses
  * Structure changes in dendrites
  * Sturcutral changes in soma of neuron

Question 17

What is post-titanic potentiation?

What is its effects?

Answer 17

High level of stimulation that allows more ca to enter terminal than could be dealt with

More vesicle to fuse
Greater NTR release
Greater probability of AP in Post syn cell

Question 18

What can stimulate Post-tetanic potentiation?

Answer 18

Brief high frequency discharge of pre synaptic neuron

= increased NTR for ~60 sec
= increased probability of AP in post syn.

Question 19

What is long term potentiation?

Answer 19

Series of changes in pre- and post synaptic neurons of a synpase which leads to

increased response at NMDA receptors to released NTR that can last for hours

Question 20

What changes are associated with Increased CREB’s gene transcription?

Answer 20

Long term potentiation

Neuronal plasticity

Question 21

What does increased CREB do in terms of neuronal plasticity?

Answer 21

Changes synapse structure permanently
&
creates new synapses via protein synthesis

Question 22

What proteins does CREB produce for neuronal plasticity changes?

Answer 22

NT synthetic enzymes

NT receptors

Proteins for growth/synapse formation

Question 23

What could blocking protein synthesis lead to in term of learning and memory?

Answer 23

Bc neuronal plasticity relies on protein synthesis

Blocking it can block learning and formation of new memories

Question 24

What is the basic pathway for creating Declarative memories?

Answer 24

Encoding —> storage —> consolidation —> retrieval —> recall ar WOrking memory

Question 25

What is the process of encoding?

Answer 25

Attending to new info (focus, attention) and linking it to previous memories and emotions

Question 26

What is storage in the process of creating declarative memories?

Answer 26

Retainment of info over time using short and long term

Question 27

What are the anatomical substrates used for storage in short term memory?

Answer 27

Hippocampus Parahippocampal cortex Prefrontal cortex Nucleus of basalis of Meynert Amygdala Neocortex

Question 28

What does the Nucleus Basalis of Meynert do in terms of storage in short term memory?

Answer 28

Provides the interconnection to the neocortex and amygdala via ACh projections

Question 29

What is a target of Alzheimer’s disease?

Answer 29

Nucleus Basalis of Meynert

Question 30

In order to store info, what plasticity change do we need to occur?

Answer 30

Long term potentiation

Question 31

What is consolidation?

Answer 31

Process of making memory permanent Aka moving it from short term to long term memory

Question 32

What are the anatomical substrates required for Consolidation?

Answer 32

Hippocampus Temporal lobes Papez circuit

Question 33

What is the papez circuit?

Answer 33

``` Cingulate cortex —> hippocampus —> hypothalamus/mammillary bodies —> anterior thalamus —> cingulate cortex ```

Question 34

What is the process for consolidation?

Answer 34

Memory is repeatedly send thru the Papez circuit, inducing long term potentiation and neuronal plasticity

Question 35

Where are long term memories stored?

Answer 35

In area of cortex related to MODALITY of the individual components i.e. visual info of a memory stored in visual cortex

Question 36

What is Retrieval in the process of creating declarative memories?

Answer 36

Recall or use memory | Bringing fragment into Working memory

Question 37

When are memories modified or lost?

Answer 37

During retrieval (when you try and bring it into working memory)

Question 38

What anatomical substrates are required for recall/retrieval of memories?

Answer 38

Neocortex Parahippocampal regions Hippocampus

Question 39

What is the process of Recalling memories/

Answer 39

Memroy components from “storage area” back to parahippocampal regions —> hippocampus, memory reconstructed here —> thru parahippocampus (to keep trace) —> cortex —> working memory

Question 40

Where is an entire memory reconstructed?

Answer 40

In hippocampus

Question 41

What is the importance of the Parahippocampus?

Answer 41

Important in prolonging life of cortical trace of memory

Question 42

What uses the retrieved memories?

Answer 42

Working memory

Question 43

What is the 3 component model used by Working Memory?

Answer 43

Central executive Phonological loop Visuospatial loop

Question 44

What is the function of the central executive of working memory? Anatomical substrates?

Answer 44

Directs/uses memory Prefrontal cortex

Question 45

What is the function of the phonological loop of working memory? Anatomical substrates?

Answer 45

Provides/interprets auditory info associated w/ memory Broca’s and Wernicke’s area

Question 46

What is the function of the Visuospatial loop of working memory? Anatomical substrates?

Answer 46

Provides/interprets visual info associated with memory Occipital cortex (+others)

Question 47

What is spatial memory?

Answer 47

Detailed memory of space that serves as scaffold for RECONSTRUCTION of entire memory (hippocampus)

Question 48

Where is spatial memory stored? Using what?

Answer 48

In hippocampus using special pyramidal cells in CA1 called “Place Cells”

Question 49

What are Place Cells?

Answer 49

◦ Neurons that are active only at specific places and especially active if you got a reward at that place Final mediator of spatial memory

Question 50

When do place cells fire?

Answer 50

‣ Fire when in specific place or recalling a specific place Especially active if you received a reward at that place

Question 51

What do Place Cells receive inputs fro?

Answer 51

Grid cells Head direction cells Border neurons Etc.

Question 52

What is the function of head direction cells?

Answer 52

Give input to place cells about which direction your head was pointing to, to see/explore area

Question 53

When will border neurons fire and send info to Place Cells?

Answer 53

• Fire when near a border (wall, etc..)

Question 54

What is the function of Grid Cells?

Answer 54

◦ Creates a mpa of place you are in ‣ Grid map ‣ Triangular or hexagonal grid Sends input to Place Cells

Question 55

Where are Grid Cells located?

Answer 55

In entorhinal cortex of hippocampus

Question 56

When are Grid Cells active?

Answer 56

When exploring an area | have to be in area for them to be active

Question 57

What is an important component of encoding/

Answer 57

Emotion

Question 58

What is the physiology for consolidation?

Answer 58

LTP as starting pt., continued activation (Papez circuit), creation of new synapses in assoc. regions of brain (visual, auditory, etc.)

Question 59

What is the signal transduction pathways for Long Term potentiation?

Answer 59

EAA —> non NMDA, Na enters, DEPOLARIZATION Mg released from NMDA r. EAA—> NMDA, Ca and Na enters Ca —> Calmodulin —>Incr. Adenylyl cyclase/cAMP —> AMPA r. Phosphorylation —> allows for INCREASE in Na Influx in response to EAA ==> bigger post synaptic response Ca —> Calcineurin —> Activates NOS —> NO to diffuse back to presynaptic cell —> increase cGMP —> Increase NTR release