Learning, Memory, & Development Flashcards
(193 cards)
1
Q
Define non-associative learning
A
Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus
◦ Two important types of non-associative learning are habituation and sensitization
2
Q
Define a habit
A
Is an action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
3
Q
Define habituation
A
A person learns to “tune out” the stimulus
◦ A diminishing of a psychological or emotional response to a frequently repeated stimulus
4
Q
Define dishabituation
A
Occurs when the previously habituated stimulus is removed
◦ After a person has been habituated to a given stimulus, and the stimulus is removed this leads to dis situation - the person is no longer accustomed to the stimulus, and if the stimulus was then presented again, the person will react to it as if it was a new stimulus and is likely to respond, even more strongly to it than before
5
Q
Define sensitization
A
The opposite of habituation
◦ There is an increase in their responsiveness due to either a repeated application of a stimulus or partially aversive or noxious stimulus
◦ Instead of being able to “tune out” or ignore the stimulus and avoid reacting at all (as in habitation), the stimulus actually produces a more exaggerated response
◦ Sensitization may also cause you to respond more vigourously to other similar stimuli
◦ It is usually temporary and may not result in any type of long-term behaviour change
6
Q
Define desensitization
A
Occurs when a stimulus that previously invoked and exaggerated a response (something that we were sensitized too) no longer evoke an exaggerated response
7
Q
Define associative learning
A
Describes the process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another
◦ There are two general categories of associative learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning
8
Q
Define classical conditioning
A
◦ Is a process in which two stimuli or paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes
◦ Also called respondent conditioning
◦ The prime example is Pavlov’s dogs
9
Q
What were Pavlov’s dogs?
A
◦ An experiment demonstrating classical conditioning
◦ Trained his dogs to salivate the sound of a ringing bell
◦ The stimulus (food) naturally produced this response (salivating) that prepare a dog for food consumption, However, dogs do not intrinsically react to the sound of a bell
◦ By pairing the sound of a bell (and auditory stimulus) with the presentation of food to the dogs, the dogs began to salivate to the sound of a bell, even in the absence of food
◦ The dogs became conditioned to salivate when they heard the bell
10
Q
What does Pavlov dog experiment demonstrate regarding specific stimuli and responses?
A
◦ The neutral stimulus: was the sound of the bell prior to the experiment
◦ The unconditioned stimulus (US): was the presentation of the food
◦ The unconditioned response (UR): was the salvation
◦ The condition to response (CS): is an originally neutral stimulus (bell) that is paired with an unconditional stimulus (food) until it can produce the conditioned response (salivation) without unconditional stimulus (food)
11
Q
Define a neutral stimulus
A
A stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response
12
Q
Define an unconditioned stimulus
A
And unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UR)
◦ Think of this response like a reflex. It is not a learned reaction, but a biological one.
13
Q
Define a conditioned stimulus (CS)
A
Is an originally neutral stimulus (bell) that is paired with an unconditional stimulus (food) until it can produce the conditioned response (salvation) with unconditioned stimulus (food)
14
Q
Define the conditioned response (CR)
A
Is the learn response to the condition stimulus
◦ It is the same as the unconditional response, but it now occurs without the unconditional stimulus
15
Q
What are the processes which classically conditioned responses are developed and maintained?
A
- Acquisition
- Extinction
- Spontaneous recovery
- Generalization
- Discrimination
16
Q
Define acquisition in classical conditioning
A
Refers to the process of learning the conditioned response
◦ This is the time during the experiment when the bell and food are always paired
17
Q
Define extinction in classical conditioning
A
Occurs when the conditioned unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the condition response eventually stops occurring
◦ After the dogs have been conditioned to salivate at the sound of the bell, if the sound is presented to the dogs over and over without being paired with the food, then after some period of time, the dogs will eventually stop salivating at the sound of the bell
18
Q
Define spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning
A
Is when an extinct condition response occurs when the condition stimulus is presented after some period of time
◦ For example, if the behaviour of salivating to the sound of the bell becomes extinct to a dog, and it is then presented to the dog again after some amount of lap time and the dog salivate the conditioned response was spontaneously recovered
19
Q
Define generalization in classical conditioning
A
Refers to the process by which stimuli other than the original condition stimulus elect the condition to response
◦ If the dog salivate to the sound of a chime or doorbell, even though those were not the same sounds as a condition stimulus, the behaviour has been generalized
20
Q
Define discrimination in classical conditioning
A
is the opposite of generalization, and occurs when the condition stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli
◦ The conditioned response only occur occurs for conditioned stimuli
◦ If the dogs do not salivate at the sound of a buzzer or horn, they have differentiated the stimuli from the sound of a bell
21
Q
Define taste-aversion
A
An example of a powerful and long lasting association and most animals which causes nausea and or vomiting
◦ When an organism eats a specific food, it becomes ill a few hours later they will generally develop a strong aversion to that food
22
Q
Define operant conditioning
A
◦ Also called instrumental conditioning
◦ Uses reinforcement (pleasurable consequences) and punishment (unpleasant consequences) to mold behaviour
◦ Time is important and it is important for the reinforcement or the punishment to occur around the same time as the behaviour in order for the learning to occur
◦ Research connected to B.F. Skinner
23
Q
What research did B.F. Skinner do? With examples
A
◦ Operate conditioning and developed what he called “a Skinner box”
◦ Classical and operant conditioning is most strongly associated with Skinner
◦ In one of his experiments, a hungry rat would be placed inside of a Skinner box that contain a lever. If the rat pressed the lever a food pellet would drop into the box. The rat would first touch the liver by mistake, but after discovering food would appear in response, the rat would continue to do so until it was full.
◦ In a different experiment, the Skinnerbox would be wired to deliver a painful electric shock until a lever was pushed. In this example, the rat would run around, trying to avoid the shock at first, until accidentally hitting the lever and causing the shock to stop. On her repeated trials, the rat would quickly push the lever to end the painful shock.
24
Q
What do the experiments conducted by BF Skinner demonstrate about operant conditioning?
A
- Reinforcement, which can be positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement
◦ In one experiment, the food pallet was a positive reinforcement for the hungry rat because it caused a rat to repeat the desired behavior. (push the lever).
◦ In the other experiment, the electric shock is a negative reinforcer for the rat because it causes the rat to repeat the desired behaviour (push the lever) to remove the undesirable stimulus (the painful shock)
25
Define reinforcement
Anything that will increase the likelihood that a proceeding behaviour will be repeated
◦ There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative
26
Differentiate between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
◦ Positive reinforcement: is some sort of desirable stimulus that occurs immediately following a behavior. In Skinners experiments pushing the lever and having a food pellet come out is an example of a positive reinforcement.
◦ Negative reinforcement: is some sort of undesirable stimulus that is removed immediately following a behavior. And Skinners experiment the electric shock stopping when the lever is pushed is an example of this.
27
Anything that ____ a desired behaviour is a reinforcer
Increases
◦ Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the desired behavior, but the process by which they do so it's different
28
What part of the brain is particularly important in negative conditioning?
The amygdala
29
What part of the brain is particularly important positive conditioning?
The hippocampus
30
Define primary reinforcers
◦ Somehow inneatly satisfying or desirable
◦ These are reinforcers that we do not need to learn to see as reinforcers because they are integral to our survival
◦ ex. Food is a primary positive reinforcer.
◦ ex. Avoiding pain and danger or primary negative reinforcers
◦ Also called unconditioned reinforcers
31
Define secondary reinforcers
◦ Are those that are learned to be reinforcers
◦ These are neutral stimuli that are paired with primary reinforcers to make them conditioned
◦ ex. If every time a child reads a book, she receives a stamp. After getting 10 stamps, she can exchange those for a small prize the prize, is the primary reinforcer, and the stamps are the secondary reinforcer the child learns to find the stamps desirable because they help her get what she wants.
◦ Secondary reinforcers can also be paired with other secondary reinforcers
◦ Almost any stimulus can become a secondary enforcer, but it must be paired with a primary reinforcer in order to produce learn behaviour
◦ Also called condition reinforcers
32
What does operant conditioning rely on?
A reinforcement schedule
33
Define a reinforcement schedule
A schedule that can be continuous or intermittent
◦ There are four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval
34
What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?
A schedule in which every occurrence of the behaviours reinforced
35
What is a intermittent reinforcement schedule?
A schedule in which occurrences are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not
36
What is the outcome of continuous reinforcement?
Will result in rapid behaviour acquisition (or rapid learning), but will also result in a rapid extinction when the reinforcement ceases
37
What is the outcome of intermittent reinforcement?
Typically result in slower acquisition of behavior, but greater persistence (or resistance to extinction) of that behaviour overtime
38
Is it possible to use both a continuous and intermittent reinforcement schedules?
Yes, you can start with a continuous schedule and then start to phase into an intermittent schedule
39
What are the four intermittent reinforcement schedules?
1. Fixed – ratio
2. Variable – ratio
3. Fixed – interval
4. Variable – interval
40
What are ratio schedules based on? What are interval schedules based on?
◦ Ratio schedules are based on the number of instances of a desired behaviour
◦ Interval schedules are based on time
41
What is a fixed – ratio schedule?
◦ Provides the reinforcement after a set number of instances of the behaviour
◦ ie. If the rat receives a food palette, every 10 times it pushes the lever, after it has been conditioned, the rat will demonstrate a high rate of response - it will push the lover rapidly, many times to get the food
42
What is a variable – ratio schedule?
◦ It provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of occurrences
◦ ex. Gambling, the reinforcement may be unpredictable, but the behaviour will be repeated with the hope of a reinforcement
43
What do both fixed–ratio schedules and variable–ratio schedules produce?
◦ High response rates
◦ The chances that a behaviour will produce a desired outcome (a treat or a jackpot or some other reinforcement) increases with the number of responses (times the behaviour is performed)
44
What is a fixed – interval schedule?
Provide provides the reinforcement after a set period of time that is consistent
◦ The behaviour will increase as the reinforcement interval comes to an end
◦ If an employee is reinforced by attention from the boss overtime, the employee learns that the boss only walks by the top of the hour, so the employee becomes an ineffective worker throughout the day, but will become more effective when the boss is near
45
What is a variable – interval schedule?
Provides the reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time
◦ This schedule produces a slow, study behavior, response rate, because the amount of time it will take to get the reinforcement is unknown
◦ If the boss walks by at an unpredictable time each day, the employee does not know when they might receive attention, and thus the employer will work in a steady effective measure throughout the day, but not very quickly. The employee knows it doesn't matter how quickly they work at a given time, because the potential reinforcement of attention is tied to an unpredictable time schedule.
46
In increasing order, what are the reinforcement schedules with lowest to highest responses?
1. Variable interval (lowest)
2. Fixed interval
3. Variable ratio
4. Fixed ratio (fastest)
47
An increasing order, what are the reinforcement schedules with the shortest to longest time for response?
1. Fixed ratio (fastest)
2. Variable ratio
3. Fixed interval
4. Variable interval (slowest)
48
Which reinforcement schedule is the best way to teach new behaviour (fastest)?
Continuous reinforcement schedule
◦ But has the fastest rate of extinction
49
Which reinforcement schedule has results that last the longest, despite lack of reinfocer?
Variable ratio
50
For continuous reinforcement schedule provide;
◦ Definition
◦ Response rate
◦ Extinction rate
◦ Notable behaviour patterns
◦ Definition: reinforcer given after every single response
◦ Response rate: slow
◦ Extinction rate: fast
◦ Notable behaviour patterns: best way to teach new behavior, but has the fastest rate of extinction
51
For fixed ration reinforcement schedule provide;
◦ Definition
◦ Response rate
◦ Extinction rate
◦ Notable behaviour patterns
◦ Definition: reinforcer given after set number of responses
◦ Response rate: fast
◦ Extinction rate: medium
◦ Notable behaviour patterns: Post reinforcement pause may be an analogue to procrastination
52
For fixed interval reinforcement schedule provide;
◦ Definition
◦ Response rate
◦ Extinction rate
◦ Notable behaviour patterns
◦ Definition: reinforcer given after that amount of time
◦ Response rate: medium
◦ Extinction rate: medium
◦ Notable behaviour patterns: Long pauses and responding following reinforcement, followed by accelerating rate
53
For variable ratio reinforcement schedule provide;
◦ Definition
◦ Response rate
◦ Extinction rate
◦ Notable behaviour patterns
◦ Definition: reinforcer given after variable number of response responses
◦ Response rate: fast
◦ Extinction rate: slow
◦ Notable behaviour patterns: slowest rate of extinction (behavior persists longest, despite lack of reinforcer)
54
For variable interval reinforcement schedule provide;
◦ Definition
◦ Response rate
◦ Extinction rate
◦ Notable behaviour patterns
◦ Definition: reinforcer given after variable amount of time
◦ Response rate: fast
◦ Extinction rate: slow
◦ Notable behaviour patterns: tends to produce a low to moderate study rate of responding
55
Define shaping
Is a way to learn more complex behaviours by breaking them down and reinforcing the "pieces of the puzzle" until the whole behaviour is strung together
◦ When learning to walk a child first crawls, then learns to pull himself up, stand up, and then walk
56
Reinforcement ____ behaviour, while punishment ___ it
◦ Increases
◦ Decreases
57
Define punishment
Is the process by which behaviour is followed by a consequence that decreases the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated
◦ Can be positive and negative
58
Differentiate between positive punishment and negative punishment
◦ Positive punishment: involves the application, or pairing, of an undesirable stimulus with the behaviour. ex. If a student speaks out, their teacher makes them do 20 push-ups.
◦ Negative punishment: involves the removal of a desirable stimulus after the behaviour has occurred. ex. If a child breaks a window while throwing a baseball in the house, they lose TV privileges for a week.
59
Positive punishment ____ and negative punishment _____
◦ adds
◦ subtracts
60
It is uncommon for ____ to have much of a lasting effect as reinforcement
Punishment
◦ Once the punishment has been removed, then it is no longer effective
61
What is the main purpose behind punishment?
◦ Only instructs what not to do, worry, reinforcement instructions what to do
62
Is reinforcement or punishment better to encourage behavior, change and learning.
Reinforcement
63
Do the processes described for classical conditioning (acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination) also occur in operant conditioning?
Yes
64
What are two specific types of operant learning?
1. Escape
2. Avoidance
65
Define escape in terms of operant learning
An individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behaviour
◦ This helps reinforce the behaviour so they will be willing to engage in it again
◦ ex. If a child does not want to eat their vegetables (aversive stimulus) she throws a temper tantrum. If the parent responds by not making the child, eat the vegetables, they will learn the behaving in a specific way will help escape that particular aversive stimulus.
66
Define avoidance in terms of operant learning
Occurs when a person performs a behaviour to ensure an adverse of stimulus is not presented
◦ ex. A child notices their mom cooking vegetables for dinner and fix an illness so they won't send them to bed without needing to eat vegetables. The child has effectively avoided the adverse of stimulus (the offensive vegetables).
67
Define behaviourism
All psychological phenomenon are explained by describing the observable antecedents of behaviours and their consequences
◦ It is not concerned with unobservable events occurring within the mind
68
Define cognitive psychology
Researchers focus on the brain, cognitions (thoughts), and their effects on how people navigate the world
69
Define insight learning
The term used to describe when previously learned behaviours are suddenly combined and unique ways
70
Define latent learning
When previously unseen behaviour can manifest quickly when required
◦ Something has learned, but not expressed as an Zirbel behaviour until it is required
◦ ex. If a child is always driven to school, they may late learn the route to school, even if they never demonstrate that knowledge when told to walk to school, the child is able to navigate along the same route.
71
For classical conditioning:
◦ Defined
◦ Response
◦ Acquisition
◦ Extinction
◦ Spontaneous recovery
◦ Generalization
◦ Discrimination
◦ Defined: organisms learn associations between stimuli that they don't control
◦ Response: involuntary, automatic
◦ Acquisition: associating two stimuli
◦ Extinction: conditioned response decreases the condition stimulus is continuously presented alone
◦ Spontaneous recovery: reappearance, after a rest period, of a response
◦ Generalization: response to stimulus similar (but not identical) to the conditioned stimulus
◦ Discrimination: ability to distinguish between condition, stimulus and other stimuli
72
For operant conditioning:
◦ Defined
◦ Response
◦ Acquisition
◦ Extinction
◦ Spontaneous recovery
◦ Generalization
◦ Discrimination
◦ Defined: organisms learn, associations between behaviours and resulting consequences
◦ Response: Voluntary
◦ Acquisition: associating response with consequence (reinforcement or punishment)
◦ Extinction: Response decreases without reinforcement
◦ Spontaneous recovery: reappearance, after a rest period, of a response
◦ Generalization: response to a similar stimulus is also reinforced
◦ Discrimination: learning that certain responses, not others, will be reinforced
73
Define learning
A change in behaviour as a result of experience
◦ Impacted by both extrinsic factors and biological constraints of organisms
◦ Learning occurs more quickly if it is biologically relevant
◦ Creates physical changes in the central nervous system
74
What is the cerebellum involved in?
Learning how to complete motor tasks
75
What is the amygdala involved in?
Learning fear responses
76
What is the relationship between short-term memory and long-term memory?
◦ Short-term memory lasts for seconds to hours, and can potentially be converted into long-term memory through consolidation
◦ Newly acquired information is temporarily stored in short-term memory and can be transferred into long-term memory under the right conditions
77
Define long-term potentiation
Occurs when, following brief periods of stimulation, and increase in the synaptic strength between two neurons leads to a stronger electrochemical response to a given stimuli
◦ When something is learned, the synapses between neurons are strengthened in the process of long-term differentiation begins
◦ When long-term potentiation occurs, the neurons involved in the circuit development increase sensitivity, which result in an increased potential for neural firing after a connection has been stimulated – this increased potential can last for hours or even weeks
78
What is thought to be the process by which memories are consolidated for long-term memory?
Synaptic strength
79
What does long-term potentiation involve?
Both recent optic and postsynaptic neurons, at a given synapsis
80
What does long-term memory storage involve?
More permanent changes to the brain, including structural and functional connections between neurons
81
Define innate behaviour
Things we know how to do instinctively, or our body just does without us consciously thinking about it), and not because someone taught us to do it
◦ ex. Breathing or pulling away from a hot stove.
◦ And eat behaviours are always the same between members of a species, even for the ones performing them for the first time
82
Define observational learning
Is learning through watching and imitating others
◦ Also called social learning or vicarious learning
83
Define modelling
◦ Observer sees the behaviour being performed by another person, and the observer imitates the behaviour they observed
◦ One of the most basic mechanisms behind observational learning
◦ Related to the Albert Bandura experiment
84
What was the Albert Bandura experiment?
◦ An example of modelling
◦ Conducted a series of experiments using a Bobo doll, and showed children videos of adult adults, either behaving aggressively towards the doll (punching, kicking, and shouting at the doll) or ignoring the doll altogether
◦ Even when the children did not see the consequences of the adults behavior, they tended to imitate the behaviour they saw
85
What are mirror neurons?
◦ They have been identified in parts of the human brain, including the pre-motor cortex, supplementary motor area, primary somatosensory cortex, and the inferior Bridle cortex
◦ Are believed to Be involved in observational learning
◦ Has been proposed their responsible for vicarious emotions, such as empathy
86
Define encoding
The process of transferring sensory information into our memory system
87
Where is information maintain temporarily?
Working memory
88
What is working memory thought to include
Phonological Loop, Vizio, spatial sketchpad, central executive, and episodic buffer
◦ working memories, quite limited in this model helps to explain the serial position effect
89
What is the serial position effect?
In immediate recall condition (shortly after the information is first presented), the individual is more likely to recall the first and last items on the list
◦ Occurs when someone attempts to memorize a series, such as a list of words (this is called the primacy effect and the recency effect)
90
Define a mnemonic
A technique for improving your attention in retrieval of information for memory
91
What are the nine processes that aid in encoding memories?
1. Rehearsal
2. Chunking
3. Hierarchies for organization
4. Depth of processing
5. acronyms
6. dual coding hypothesis
7. method of Loci
8. the peg word method
9. the self-reference effect
92
How does rehearsal aid in encoding memories?
Through the use of the phonological loop (by repeating it over and over again in your head/writing it down)
◦ repeated rehearsal, can lead to encoding into long-term memory
93
How does chunking aid in encoding memories?
Chunking as a strategy in which information to be remembered, is organized into discreet groups of data
◦ this is done by breaking it down i.e. for a phone number memorizing the area code, the first three digits, and the last three digits as discrete chunks.
◦ Decreases the number of things to memorize to three instead of 10.
94
How are hierarchies organization used in encoding memories?
ex. If a child is learning different animals in the zoo, it would be useful to have a category of "birds" to include ostriches, penguins, etc., and a category of "big cats" remember lions and tigers, etc..
◦ when were to organize into groups, recall significantly improves
95
How are depth of processing important for encoding memories?
Information I just thought about a deeper level is better remembered
◦ ex. It is easier to remember the general plot of a book than the exact words, meaning that semantic information (meaning) is more easily remembered than grammatical information (form) when the goal is to learn a concept.
96
How are acronyms used in encoding memories?
To use short words or phrases that represent longer strings of information
97
How does the dual coding hypothesis aid in encoding memories?
◦ Indicates that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone
◦ by encoding both a visual mental representation and associated word, there are more connections made to the memory and an opportunity to process the information at a deeper level
98
How does the method of loci aid in encoding memory?
Involves imagining moving through a familiar place, such as your home, and in each place, leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered
◦ mind Palace
99
How does the peg word method aid in encoding memories?
Involves assigning images to sequence of numbers
◦ related to the method of Loci, and for recall, images of the places would be called upon to bring into awareness the associated topics
100
How does the self–reference effect aid in encoding memories?
Because it is easier to remember things that are personally relevant because it interacts with their own views or because it can be linked to existing memories
101
What are the different types of memory storage?
◦ Sensory memory (includes iconic memory, eidetic memory, and echoic memory)
◦ short-term memory
◦ long-term memory
102
Define sensory memory
The initial recording of sensory information in the memory system, is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays
◦ two types of sensory memory are: iconic memory, and echoic memory
103
Differentiate between iconic memory and echoic memory
◦ Iconic memory: is brief photographic memory for visual information, which decay within a few tents of a second
◦ Echoic memory, is memory for sound, which lasts for about 3 to 4 seconds
104
Define eidetic memory
An ability found in some children to remember an image in vivid detail for several minutes after brief exposure
105
When does information from sensory memory decay rapidly?
If it does not pass through Broadbent's filter into short-term memory
106
What are limitations to short-term memory?
Limited in duration and in capacity
◦ recall is typically around seven items, plus or minus 2
◦ information in short-term memory is retained for only about 20 seconds, unless it is actively processed so it can be transferred into long-term memory
107
Define long-term memory
Information that is retained sometimes indefinitely
◦ it is believed to have an infinite capacity
108
Differentiate between short-term memory and working memory
◦ Short-term memory: is strongly correlated with the hippocampus, where new information sought to be remembered resides temporarily, and is then encoded into long-term memory or forgotten
◦ working memory, which is strongly correlated with the prefrontal cortex, is a storage bin to hold memories (short-term or long-term) that are needed at a particular moment in order to process information or solve a problem
109
Define implicit or procedural memory
Refers to conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something
110
Define explicit or declarative memory
Involves being able to "declare" or voice what is known
◦ ex. When someone reads a book and is unable to explain in great detail, what the book outlined.
◦ Can be subdivided into semantic memory, or episodic memory
111
What are two subdivisions of explicit memory?
1. Semantic memory
2. Episodic memory
112
Define semantic memory
Memory for factual information
◦ ex. The capital of England
113
Define episodic memory
Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance
◦ ex. The situation surrounding a first kiss
114
What brain structures are involved in memory?
◦ Hippocampus
◦ cerebellum
◦ amygdala
115
What is the hippocampus's role in memory?
Is necessary for encoding of new explicit memories
116
What is the role of the cerebellum in memory?
Is involved in learning skills and conditioned associations (implicit memory)
117
What is the role of the amygdala in memory?
Is involved in associating a motion with memories, particularly negative memories
118
What is infantile amnesia?
◦ The implicit memories that an infant makes her retained indefinitely, but the explicit memories that an infant makes are largely not retained until the age of four (it is only until after the hippocampus is fully developed, that explicit memories are retained long-term)
119
Define retrieval in terms of memory
The process of finding information stored in memory
120
Define recall in terms of memory
The ability to retrieve information
◦ can be broken down into free recall and cued recall
121
Differentiate between free recall and cued recall
◦ Free recall involves retrieving the item "out of thin air"
◦ Cued recall involves retrieving the information when provided with a cue
122
Define recognition in terms of memory
Involves identifying specific information from a set of information that is presented
◦ ie. Multiple-choice test.
123
Define reproductive memory
Storage of the original stimulus input and subsequent recall
124
Define relearning
Involves the process of learning material that was originally learned
◦ once we have learned and forgotten something, we are able to relearn it more quickly than we were when it was originally learned, which suggests that the information was in the memory system to be retrieved
125
What is a retrieval cue?
◦ Provider reminders of information
◦ A type called: Priming
126
Define priming
Prior activation of nodes and associations making it easier to remember something/pick out something
◦ often this process occurs without our awareness
127
What is mood dependent memory?
What we learn in one state is most easily recalled when we are once again in that emotional state
◦ i.e. when we are happy, we are most likely to remember other times at which we were happy
128
How does a motion impact retrieving memories?
◦ We have mood-dependent memory
◦ emotion can bias the recall of memories
◦ flashbulb memories are tied to intense emotions
129
What are flashbulb memories?
Intense, vivid "snapshots" of an emotional intense experience
◦ are often experienced by PTSD patients during recollection of the traumatic event
130
What is the process of remembering information?
Paying attention, encoding, retaining information (storage), and finally retrieval
131
How does forgetting something occur?
When any of the steps involved in the process of remembering information does not occur
◦ a failure to pay attention or encode means that the information never got into the memory system
◦ a failure to store information is decay
◦ a failure in retrieval could result from a lack of retrieval cues or interference
132
How does ageing impact memory?
◦ Decline and memories influenced by how active the person is: increased activity (both physical and mental is a protective factor against neuronal atrophy
◦ memory, loss, parallel of the age related loss of neurons
◦ there is a greater decline for information that is less meaningful and less richly connected
◦ older adults, show minimal decline in recognition, but greater decline in free recall
133
What is perspective memory?
Remembering to do things in the future
◦ is stronger when there are accuses in the environment. (i.e. an alarm).
◦ Difficulty with perspective, memory without cues also makes it difficult to complete time based tasks, since one must remember to look at a clock or keep track of a schedule.
134
What is memory dysfunctions?
Can occur due to damaged parts of the brain by strokes, brain, tumors, alcoholism, traumatic brain, injuries, and other events can cause memory impairment
◦ including anterograde, amnesia, and retrograde amnesia, and Alzheimer's
135
Differentiate between anterograde, amnesia and retrograde amnesia
◦ Anterograde amnesia: an inability to encode new memories
◦ retrograde amnesia: an inability to recall information that was previously encoded
136
What does memory decay result in?
A failure to retain stored information
◦ does not happen in a linear fashion
◦ the quote for getting curve" indicates that the longer the attention interval, or the time since the interval was learned, the more information will be forgotten, with the most forgetting occurring rapidly in the first few days before levelling off
◦ unreviewed information is quickly forgotten overtime whereas frequent review of information overtime slow is forgetting
137
How can interference impact memory?
Can result in a failure to retrieve information that is in storage
◦ the passage of time may create more opportunities for newer information to interfere with older learning, which is especially common if the learned information is similar.
◦ Can be broken down into proactive interference, retroactive interference or positive transfer.
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Differentiate between proactive interference and retroactive interference
◦ Proactive interference: happens when information previously learned interferes with the ability to recall information learned later. ex. Remembering where you had parked your car in a parking garage will be more difficult once you've parked in that parking garage for months in different locations.
◦ Retroactive interference: happens when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously. ex. Trying to remember your address of a new home after just having moved makes it harder to remember old addresses.
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Define positive transfer
When old information facilitates the learning of new information
◦ i.e. knowing how to play American football may make it easier for someone to learn how to play rugby
140
Define a schema
A mental blueprint containing common aspects of some part of the world
◦ sometimes the information we retrieve is based more on a scheme than on reality
◦ Ex. if asked to describe what your fourth grade classroom looked like you may remember different things based on your schema for such a classroom, even though the actual actual room may not have had some of those items (a memory tends to fill in the blanks by adding details that may not have been present at the time)
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What is the misinformation effect?
When after people are exposed to subtle misinformation, they are naturally susceptible to the misinformation effect which is tendency to misremember
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What are false memories?
◦ Are inaccurate recollections of an event, and maybe the result of the implanting of ideas
◦ Occur when repeatedly imagining that one did something can create false memories
◦ It could be very difficult for people to distinguish between your real memories and false memories by feeling, because both can be accompanied by emotional reactions in the sense of familiarity
143
What is the theory of reconstructive memory?
Argues that rather than an episodic recall of the events that took place, memory is a constructive process that involves building a memory from similar experiences, social expectations, perceptions, cues, and feelings, all of which are combined with recollection of the event itself to form a memory experience
144
What is an error in source monitoring?
When we're calling information, people are susceptible to forgetting one particular fact – the information source
◦ if you're angry at an individual for doing something hurtful, only to later realize that the action occurred in a dream
◦ or when you recognize someone, but have no idea where you've seen the person before
145
What is developmental psychology?
The study of how humans develop physically, cognitively, and socially, throughout their lifetime
146
What happens during prenatal development?
◦ The female and male gay mats, the oven and the sperm, used to form as zygote – a single cell with the entire genetic component necessary for developing into a human being
◦ during the prenatal stage (from conception, birth), genetic and environmental factors have an impact on development
147
What role does the placenta have during prenatal development?
◦ the placenta, transfers, nutrients, and oxygen to the developing fetus, and transport wasting carbon dioxide away from the fetus. It acts as a barrier, presenting the foetus from harmful substances, but some substances can still across the barrier.
◦ Alcohol, for example, easily crosses, placental barrier and has been shown of negative impact on neurological development.
148
Define reflexes in infants
Automatic behaviors, which are useful for survival
◦ Are considered primitive because they originate in the central nervous system and are exhibited by all normal infants
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What are the seven reflexes normal infants have?
1. Moral (startle) reflex
2. Rooting reflex
3. Sucking reflex
4. Babinski reflex
5. Tonic neck reflex
6. Palmer grass reflex
7. Walking/stepping reflex
150
What is the moro reflex?
◦ The startle reflex
◦ in response to a loud sound or set a movement, infant once will startle
◦ ie. The baby throws back its head and extends its arms and legs, cries, and then pulls the arms and legs back in
◦ This reflex is present at birth and lasts for about six months
151
What is the rooting reflex?
◦ In response to touching or stroking of one of the babies cheeks, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for the nipple
152
What is the sucking reflex?
◦ Linked with the rooting reflex, in response to anything touching the roof of the baby's mouth, it will begin to suck
152
What is the Babinski reflex?
In response to the soul of the foot being stroke, the baby's big toe moves upward or towards the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out
153
What is the tonic neck reflex?
In response to its head being turned to one side, the baby will stretch out its arms on the same side and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow
◦ this reflex lasts about 6 to 7 months
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What is the Palmer grasp reflex?
In response to stroking the babies palm, the babies hand will grasp
◦ this reflects last a few months
155
What is the walking/stepping reflex?
In response to the soles of a baby feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to "walk" by placing 1 foot in front of the other
◦ this reflex disappears at around six weeks and reappears at around 8 to 12 months when a baby learns to walk
156
In order from start to finish, what is the motor development through a lifetime?
1. Reflexive movement (0-1 yr)
2. rudimentary movement (0–2 years)
3. fundamental movement (2–7 years)
4. specialized movement (7–14 years)
5. application of movement (14+ years)
157
What are reflective movements?
Primitive, involuntary movements that serve to "prime" the neuromuscular system inform the basis for the more sophisticated movement to come
158
When does reflexes and learning to inhibit reflexes occur?
◦ during the first year of a child's life and overlap with the stage in which rudimentary movements are learned
159
What are rudimentary movements?
Serve as the first voluntary movement performed by a child
◦ they occurred very predictable stages from birth to age 2, and include rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, and walking
◦ these form the foundation on which the fundamental movements are built and are dictated by genetics (these movements are more or less "pre-programmed")
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What is the fundamental movement stage?
Occurs from age 2, to age 7
◦ during this time, the child is learning to manipulate their body through actions, such as running, jumping, throwing, catching
◦ this stage is highly influenced by environment, much more so than the rudimentary movement stage
◦ the stage is necessary for proper motor development and movements initially start out uncoordinated and poorly controlled, but as the child advances an age, movements become modified, coordinated, and efficient
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What is the specialized movement stage?
◦ Children learn to combine the fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks
◦ this stage can be subdivided into two shorter stages: a transitional stage in an application space stage
◦ the application of strategy to movement is now possible, with the child having the ability to choose to delay shooting the basketball until they have a clear shot at the basket
162
Differentiate between the transitional substage and the application sub stage
◦ The transitional substage: is where the combination of movements occur. ex. Grasping, throwing, and jumping are combined to shoot a basket in basketball.
◦ The application substage: is defined more by conscious decisions to apply these skills to specific types of activity.
ex. One child may choose to play basketball where is another? Might use the same set of skills and abilities to play baseball.
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What is the application of movement stage?
Typically, beginning and adolescence and progressing through adulthood
◦ movements are continually refined and applied to normal daily activities as well as recreational and competitive activities
164
What occurs during early brain development?
◦ Maturation
165
At what point of life do humans have the highest number of neurons?
At birth, because during prenatal development, the brain actually produces more neurons than needed
166
What do neural networks look like in the brain at birth?
The immature brain does not have many neural networks
167
What are neural networks?
Codified roots for information processing (the types that are generated in a response to learning and experience throughout a lifetime)
168
How do neural networks change during infancy in early childhood development?
Neurons for neural networks, and network networks are reinforced by learning and behaviour
169
What part of the brain has the most rapid growth from ages 3 to 6 and why?
The frontal lobes
◦ this is corresponding to an increase in rational planning and attention
170
What part of the brain is last to develop?
The association areas, linking with thinking, memory, and language
171
Define maturation
Is the sequence of biological growth processes in human development
◦ While largely genetic, it's still influenced by environment.
172
What part of the brain has to develop prior to learning to walk?
The cerebellum
173
At what age do most humans learn to walk?
Age 1
174
What is the average age of earliest conscious memory?
Roughly 3.5 years
◦ before this, we are unable to recall much, if anything (this is called infantile amnesia)
175
What is stranger anxiety?
Crying and clinging to a caregiver
◦ this occurs approximately from 8–12 months of age
◦ Peaks around 13 months for children and then gradually declines
176
Why does stranger anxiety occur?
Because infants have developed schemas for familiar faces, and when new faces do not fit, and already developed schema come into the infant becomes distressed
177
What experiment did the Harlow's do?
◦ They bred monkeys and provided them with a baby blanket
◦ when the blanket was removed, the baby monkeys became distressed because they had formed an intense attachment to the object
◦ they created two artificial mothers, a nourishing one with a bottle and a cloth one
◦ the monkeys preferred the Kloss, mother, cleaning to her and spending the majority of their time with her, and visiting the other mother only to feed
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What did the Harlow's experiment prove?
That "contact comfort" was an essential element of the infant/mother bonding as well as psychological development
179
What experiment did Mary Ainsworth do?
A series of experiment it's called "strange situation experiment"
◦ the mothers would leave the infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how the infants would react
◦ this demonstrated: securely attached infants, and insecurely attached in infants
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What are securely attached incidents?
◦ In the presence of their mother or caregiver, will play and explore. When the mother leaves the room, the infant is distressed, and when the mother returns, the infant will see comfort with them and is easily consoled
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What are insecurely attached infants?
◦ Less likely to explore their surroundings and even come to their mother when in their presence. When the mother leaves their room, they will cry loudly and remain upset or demonstrate indifference to her departure and to return.
182
What did observations prove different regarding mothers for securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants?
◦ Securely attached infants have sensitive responsive mothers who are quick to attend to a child's needs in a consistent fashion
◦ insecurely attached infants have mothers who are insensitive and unresponsive, attending to their child's needs inconsistently, or sometimes even ignoring their children
183
What do psychologist believe that early interactions with parents do?
Lay the foundation for future adult relationship relationships
184
What are the three types of parenting styles?
1. Authoritarian
2. Permissive
3. Authoritative
185
What is authoritarian parenting?
Involves attempting to control children with strict roles that are expected to be followed unconditionally
◦ they will often utilize punishment instead of discipline and will not explain their reasoning behind their rules
◦ are very demanding, but not very responsive to their children, and do not provide much warmth or nurturing
◦ children turn out to be more aggressive towards others, or may act shy and fearful around others, having a lower self-esteem, and difficulty in social situations
186
What is permissive parenting?
Allow their children to leave the show
◦ have few rules and demands, these parents really discipline their children
◦ they are very responsive and loving towards our children, but are rather lenient and rules are enforced and consistently
◦ these children tend to lack self discipline, may be self involved in demanding, and may demonstrate poor social skills
187
What are authoritative parents?
Listen to their children, encourage independence, place limits on behaviour and consistently follow through with consequences when behaviour is not met
◦ they express warmth, the nurturing, and allow children to express their opinions and discuss options.
◦ They have expectations for their children in common when children break their rules. They are disciplined in affair in consistent manner.
◦ Tend to produce children that are happier, have good emotion, control, and regulation, develop good social skills, and a confident in their abilities.
188
Define adolescence
The transitional stage between childhood and adulthood
◦ generally begins at puberty and ends with the achievement of an independent adult status
189
What does adolescence entail for females?
◦ Increased oestrogen causes the development of secondary sex characteristics as well as the initiation of the menstrual cycle
190
What does adolescence entail for males?
Increase testosterone also causes the development of secondary sex characteristics and the onset of ejaculation
191
What three changes does the brain undergo during adolescence?
1. Cell proliferation (In certain areas, particularly the prefrontal lobes in the Olympic system.)
2. synaptic pruning (unused unnecessary connections).
3. Myelination (which strengthens connections between various regions.).
192
What is the frontal cortex responsible for?
Responsible for abstract, thought, planning, anticipate eating consequences, and personality
◦ it continues to develop until the age of 26
