Psychology & Sociology Glossary Flashcards
(646 cards)
1
Q
Define absolute poverty
A
The inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities
2
Q
Define acetylcholine (ACh)
A
The neurotransmitter use at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system, and by the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system
3
Q
Define acetylcholinesterase
A
The enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft
4
Q
Define achieved status
A
A status due largely to an individual’s efforts
5
Q
Define acquisition
A
The process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response
6
Q
Define action potential
A
A localized change in a neuron’s membrane potential the propagates away from its point of origin
7
Q
Define activation-synthesis theory
A
The theory that dreams are simply byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep
8
Q
Define actor-observer bias
A
The tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of other on their personalities
9
Q
Define addiction
A
A compulsion to perform an act repeatedly, often with detrimental effects on the individual
10
Q
Define the adrenal cortex
A
The outer region of the adrenal gland that produced cortisol in repsonse to long-term (chronic) stress and aldosterone in response to low blood pressure or low blood osmolarity
11
Q
Define the adrenal medulla
A
The inner region of the adrenal gland that releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream
12
Q
Define the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
A
A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to release cortisol and aldosterone
13
Q
Define affect
A
A person’s visible emotion in the moment
14
Q
Define affirmative action
A
Policies that seek to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions
15
Q
Define aggregate
A
People who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity
16
Q
Define aggression
A
Behaviour that is forceful, hostile, or attacking
17
Q
Define agnosia
A
The inability to recognize objects through sensory mechanisms despite intact function of the underlying sense itself
18
Q
Who was Mary Ainsworth
A
Conducted famous studies on attachment style in infants
19
Q
Define algorithm
A
A step-by-step detailing aid to problem-solving
20
Q
Define alpha waves
A
Low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state
21
Q
Define altruism
A
A behaviour that benefits others, possibly at the expense of the individual
22
Q
Define ALzheimer’s disease
A
The most prevalent form of dementia, characterized by severse memory impairment
23
Q
Define amalgamation
A
Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
24
Q
Define amygdala
A
Almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences
25
Define the anal stage
The second of Freud's five psychosexual stages, in this stage the child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination
26
Define anterograde amnesia
An inability to form new memories
27
Define antisocial personality disorder
A psychological disoder characterized by serious behaviour problems beginning in adolescence, including significant aggression against people or animals, property destruction, lying or theft
28
Define anxiety disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by intense, frequent, and uncontrollable anxiety
29
Archival studies
Studies that explore historical records and search for patterns or insight
30
Who was Solomon Asch
Conducted important research on conformity and group pressure
31
Define ascribed status
A status that is assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts
32
Define assimilation
The process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own culturla tradition to adopt those of a different culture
33
Define associative learning
Process if learning in which one event, object, or action is diectly connect with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning
34
Define the attenuation model of selective attention
Model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that tunes up attended inputs and tunes down unattended inputs, rather than eliminating them
35
Define attitude
A person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events and behavioural tendencies
36
Define attribution theory
A theory that attempts to explain behaviour by attributing it to either internal or external causes
37
Define attrition
Occurs when participants in a study drop out before completion
38
Define auditory cortex
The area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information
39
Define auditory tube
Functions to equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal
40
Define authoritarian parenting
Parents impose strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally
41
Define authoritative parenting
Parents place limits on behaviour and consistently follow through on consequences, but also allow for two-way communication with children
42
Define autonomic nervous system
The ANS is the division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls the visceral organs. It can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
43
Define availability heuristic
Mental shortcut of making judgments on the frequency of something occurring based on how readily it is available in our memories
44
Define avoidance learning
The process by which one learns to ensure that a negative stimulus will not occur
45
Define avoidant personality disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism
46
Define an axon
A long projection of the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated
47
Define back stage
In the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves
48
Who was Albert Bandura
Famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning
49
Define baroreceptor
A sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure
50
Define basal neuclei
◦ Structures that coordinate smooth motion by inhibiting excess movement
◦ Also known as basal ganglia
51
Define basilar membrane
Membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti, which contains hearing receptors
52
Define behavioural genetics
The study of the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual's personality and behaviours
53
Define behavioural therapy
This type of therapy uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviours in the desired direction
54
Define behaviourism
The perspective that personality is a result of learned beaviour patterns based on the environment
55
Define beliefs
The convictions or principles that people within a culture hold
56
Define belief bias
A tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic
57
Define belief perseverance
The maintenacne of beliefs even in the face of evidence to the contrary
58
Define beta waves
Waking EEG waves seen during alert focus with oscillations between 12.5 Hz and 30 Hz
59
Define between-subjects design
Comparisons are made between one group and another to test for differences
60
Define bilateral descent
A system of linage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important
61
Define biofeedback
Means of recording and feeding back information about autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses
62
Define biographical studies
Studies that investigate all relevant details of the life of an individual or small group
63
Define bipolar disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes of depression and mania
64
Define bipolar neuron
A neuron with a single axon and a single dendrite
65
Define body dysmorphic disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance
66
Define borderline personality disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others
67
Define bottom-up processing
Sensory processing that begins with sensory receptors and works up to complex integration of information in the brain
68
Define Broca's area
Region in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe involved in language production
69
Define bystander effect
The fact that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around
70
Define the Cannon-Bard theory
Asserts that the physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously and collectively lead to the behavioural reaction
71
Define capitalism
An economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit
72
Define case studies
Studies that make a deep and comprehensive exploration of a single individual, phenomenon, or disorder
73
Define a caste system
A closed social stratification where people remain stuck in the category that they are born into
74
Define a category
People who share similar characteristics but are not othersie linked as a group
75
Who was Raymond Cattell
A psychologist who used factor analysis with hundreds of traits to identify sixteen source traits, then reduced these into five global factors
76
Define central executive
Part of working memory that controls the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer
77
Define the central nervous system
The subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord
78
Define the central route
Cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument
79
Define cerebellum
The region of the brain that coordinates and smoothes skeletal muscle activity
80
Define cerebral cortex
A thin layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres
81
Define cerebrospinal fluid
CSF is a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord
82
Define charismatic authority
A form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma
83
Define chemical synapse
Synapse at which a neurotransmitter is released from the axon of a neuron into the synatic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure
84
Define chemoreceptor
A sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals, for example, gustatory (taste) receptors, and olfactory (smell) receptors
85
Define chunking
Memory technique in which information is organized into groups of data, allowing more information to be remembered overall
86
Define church
A type of well-integrated religious organization that attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers
87
Define ciliary muscle
Muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye
88
Define circadian rhythm
The waxing and waning of alertness throughout the 24-hour day
89
Define a class system
A social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, and education, but the classes are open, so people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one)
90
Define classical conditioning
Process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them
91
Define cochlea
The curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells used to transduce sound waves into action potentials
92
Define the cocktail party effect
Phenomenon in which salient information "catches" one's attention
93
Define coercive organizations
Organization in which members do not have a choice in joining
94
Define cognitive behavioural therapy
CBT is a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviours that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented nd systematic techniques
95
Define cognitive dissonance theory
A theory that explains that we feel tension (dissonacne) whenever we hold two thoughts (cognitions) that are incompatible
96
Define cognitive psychology
Tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus-response behaviours
97
Define conditioned response
Previously unlearned response that has become a learned response to a conditioned stimulus
98
Define conditioned stimulus
An orgininally neutral stimulus that is paired until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus
99
Define conduction aphasia
Language dysfunction characterized by poor speech repetition despite intact comprehension and fluent speech
100
Define cones
Photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide colour vision
101
Define confederates
A person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation
102
Define confirmation bias
A tendency to search only for information that confirms a preconceived conclusion
103
Define conflict theory
A theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources
104
Define conformity
The phenomenon of adjusting behaviour or thinking based on the behaviour or thinking of others
105
Define confounding variables
Variables other than the research variables that would explain as experimental effect if one were found
◦ Also known as extraneous variables
106
Define consciousness
Awareness of self, internal states, and the environment
107
Define construct validity
THe extent to which a psychometric instrument measures what it porports to
108
Define control group
The group that does not receive the treatment in an experiment, and is used as a point of reference for the experimental group
109
Define conversion disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause
110
Define cornea
The clear portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball, found over the iris and the pupil
111
Define corpus callosum
The largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
112
Define correlational studies
Studies that measure the quantitative relationship between two variables
113
Define cortisol
Steroid hormone release during chronic stress
◦ prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppress immunity and increased illness
114
What is a cross-sectional study?
A study design in which data collection or survey of a population or sample occurs at a specific time
115
What is the crude birth rate?
The annual number of live births per thousand people in a population
116
What is the crude death rate?
The annual number of deaths per thousand people in a population
117
Define a cult
A religious organization that is far outside societies norms
118
Define culture
A shared way of life, including the beliefs and practises that a social group shares
119
Define cultural capital
The non-financial social assets that promote social mobility
120
Define cultural relativism
Judging another culture based on its own cultural standards
121
Define cultural universals
Patterns or traits that are common to all people, such as securing food and shelter
122
Define cyclothymic disorder
A psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder, but the moods are less extreme
123
Define the death instinct
According to psychoanalytic theory, the death, instinct drives aggressive behaviours fuel by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others
124
Define debriefing
After participants complete a study or some part of a study, researchers thoroughly review the purpose of the study, hypotheses, and implications
125
Define deindividuation
An explanation of peoples uncharacteristic behaviour when situations provide a high degree of arousal and low sense of responsibility
126
Define delusion
A false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false
127
What are demand characteristics?
Researcher expectations that influence participant responses
◦ often participants subconsciously adapt their behaviour and responses to fit with the research hypotheses, which they have guessed
128
Define demography
The study of human population dynamics, including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population overtime due to birth, death, and migration
129
What is a dendrite?
A projection of the cell body of a neuron that receives a nerve impulses from a different neuron and sends the impulse to the cell body
◦ neurons can have one or several dendrites
130
What is dependent personality disorder?
A psychological disorder characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of themself
131
What is depersonalization disorder?
A psychological disorder characterized by a reoccurring or persistent, feeling of being cut off or detached from one's body or mental processes, as if observing oneself from the outside
132
What is depolarization?
The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential
133
Define depressant
Classes of drugs that depressed or slow down neural activity
134
What is depth of processing?
The idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered
135
Define deviance
A violation of society, standards of conduct or expectations
136
What is the diagnostic and statistical manual?
The DSM is the universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders
137
What is diencephalon?
The portion of the four brain that includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus
138
Define difference threshold
The minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% at the time
139
Define disclosure
Before participants take part of a study, researchers must give them an idea of what they will be expected to do, enforced, the right discontinue participation in the study at any time
140
What is discrimination (scientific)?
Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli
141
What is discrimination?
Unjust treatment of a group, based on group characteristics
142
What is dishabitation?
The restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that previously become weakened through habitation
143
What is disorganized type schizophrenia?
A psychological disorder, characterized by psychosis in the form of inappropriate affect, disorganized, speech, and disorganized behaviour
144
What is dissociative amnesia?
A psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of sudden suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or trauma
145
What is dissociative disorder?
A psychological disorder, characterized by a person‘s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, being separated from conscious awareness and control, and not explainable as mere forgetfulness
146
What is dissociative fugue?
A psychological disorder in which someone goes on a journey, during which they cannot recall personal history prior to the journey
147
What is dissociative identity disorder?
A psychological disorder characterized by alternating between multiple personality states
148
Define divided attention
Focussing on multiple tasks simultaneously
149
What is downward mobility?
A decrease in social class
150
Define dramaturgical perspective
Assume that people are theatrical performers and that every day life is a stage
151
Define drive
And urge originating from a physiological discomfort, such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness
152
What is drive reduction theory?
A theory that suggested a physiological need creates an aroused state (drive) that motivates the organism to reduce that drive (satiate the need) by engaging in some behaviour
153
What is the dual coding hypothesis?
Hypothesis that is easier to remember words with associated images, either words or images alone
154
Who was Emile Durkheim?
Considered the founder of sociology and a major proponent of functionalism
155
What is dynamic equilibrium?
Occurs when complex societies may contain many different interdependent parts working together to maintain stability
156
Define dyssomnias
Disorders that involve abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep
157
What is dysthymic disorder?
A psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, less chronic form of depression
158
Define ecclesia
A dominant religious organization that includes most member members of society, and is recognized as the exclusive national religion
159
What is echoic memory?
Sensory memory for sound
160
Define effector
The organ that carries out the command sent along a particular motor neuron
161
What are efferent neurons?
A neuron that carries information away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron
162
What is an egalitarian family?
A family system or spouses are involved in negotiation when making decisions
163
Define ego
According to Freud psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness
164
What are ego defence mechanisms?
According to psychoanalytic theory, mechanisms developed to cope with anxiety and protect the ego, in a way that unconsciously denies or distorts reality
165
What is an eidetic memory?
Ability found in some children to vividly recall an image after brief exposure
166
What is the elaboration likelihood model?
The model explains that whether the content of an argument or some more superficial attribute is more likely to cause persuasion
167
Define Electra complex
Occurs during the phallic stage when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile towards her mother, who has seen as a rival
168
What is an electrical synapse?
A type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junction, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential to spread easily from cell to cell
169
Define electroencephalography
Low resolution, functional technique that provides real-time data on brainwave synchronization, and nodes spread through the scalp
170
What is an EMG?
Electromyogram
Recording of skeletal muscle movements
171
What is an EOG?
Electrooculogram
Record recording of eye movements
172
Define empathy
The ability to identify with others emotions
173
Define encoding
The process of transferring sensory information into the memory system
174
What is the endocrine gland?
Ductless gland that secretes hormones into the blood
175
What is the endocrine system?
A system of ductless glands that secrete chemicals (hormones) into the blood
176
Define endogamy
The practice of marrying within a particular group
177
What is environmental injustice?
When people in poor communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being
178
What is epinephrine?
Hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolong that increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system
179
Define an episodic buffer
Part of working memory that interacts with information in long-term memory
180
What is episodic memory?
Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance
181
What is EPSP?
Excitatory postsynaptic potential
A slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing a membrane potential closer to the threshold for an action potential
182
Who was Eric Erickson?
Extended Freud’s theory of developmental stages by adding social factors and adding developmental stages and adolescence and adulthood
183
Define escape learning
Through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behaviour in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus
184
What is estrogen?
The primary female sex hormone
185
Define ethnicity
Socially defined concept referring to whether large social group identifies with each other based on culture
186
Define ethnocentrism
The tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one’s own culture
187
Define ethnographic studies
Studies that make a deep and comprehensive exploration of an ethnicity or culture
188
Define executive functions
Higher order, thinking processes that include planning, organizing, and decision-making
189
What is the exocrine gland?
A gland, such as a sweat gland, that secretes its products into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity
190
Define exogamy
Requirement to marry outside a particular group, to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives
191
What is an experimental group?
The group that receives the treatment in an experiment, in contrast to the control group
192
What is an experimental hypothesis?
The hypothesis that there is an experimental effect, and the treatment is responsible for the measure difference
193
What is explicit or declarative memory?
Memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge
194
What is extneral validity?
The belief that outcomes in one’s life are determined by outside forces
195
Define extinction
Classical conditioning, the unpairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
196
Define extraneous variables
Variables other than the research variables, that would explain an experimental effect if one were found
Also known as confounding variables
197
Define false consensus
Occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)
198
Define false memory
Inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination or suggestion
199
Define feature detection theory
A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for specific features of a visual stimulus, such a shape, color, movement, etc.
200
Define fecundity
The potential reproductive capacity for a female in a population
201
Define feral children
Neglected or abandoned children who grew up without human contact or care
202
What is the filter model?
Model of selective attention that suggests that information is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through
203
What is the Five-Factor Model?
A model developed to explain personality, using five overarching personality traits
204
What is a fixed-interval schedule?
Reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set period of time has passed
205
What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
Reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behaviour
206
Define flashbulb memory
Intense vivid “snapshot” of an emotionally intense experience
207
Define folkways
Norms that are more informal, yet shape, everyday behavior (styles of dress, ways of greeting.)
208
What is a food desert?
An area, typically in a highly populated, lower income, urban environment, we’re healthy, fresh food is difficult to find
209
What is the foot-in-the-door phenomenon?
A persuasion strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, than gradually asking for a larger commitment
210
Who was Sigmund Freud?
An Austrian neurologist, who is considered the founder of psychoanalytic theory
211
Define front stage
In the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people
212
What is the frustration-aggression principle?
This principle suggest that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression
213
Define functional fixedness
A tendency to perceive, the functions of objects is fixed and unchanging
214
Define functionalism
A theory that conceptualizes society is a living organism with many different parts and organs, each of which has a distinct purpose
215
Define fundamental attribution error
The tendency to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person’s character or personality on their behaviour
216
Define fundamentalists
People who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs
217
Who was Phineas Gage?
Famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head
218
Define game theory
The theory used to predict a large, complex systems, such as the overall behaviour of a population
219
What is a ganglion?
A clump of gray matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the peripheral nervous system
220
What is gender bias in medicine?
Occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness
221
Define gender conditioning
The socialization of gender roles is also known as gender conditioning
222
What is the gender schema theory?
The study of how gender beliefs become socialized in society
223
What is the general fertility rate?
The annual number of live births per 1000 women of child bearing age within a population
224
Define general intelligence
Foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities
225
Define generalization
In classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a condition stimulus illicit the condition to response
226
What is generalized anxiety disorder?
GAD
A psychological disorder, characterized by tension or anxiety, much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attack attacks
227
Define generalized other
When a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the generalized other
228
Define genotype
The genetic make up of an organism
229
What is gestalt psychology?
A theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner
230
What is global inequality?
The extent to which wealth is distributed unevenly among the worlds population
231
Define global stratification
A comparison of the wealth, economic, stability, and power of various countries
232
What is glucagon?
A peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas
It primarily targets the liver, stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus in increasing blood glucose levels
233
What are gonadotropins?
Anterior pituitary tropic hormones that stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secret sex steroids
234
What is gray matter?
Unmyelinated neuron cell bodies and short unmyelinated axons
235
Define a group
Collection of people (as few as two) who regularly interact and identify
236
Define group polarization
The phenomenon where groups tend to intensify the pre-existing views of their members until the average view is more extreme than initially was
237
What is group pressure or peer pressure?
Pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs
238
Define groupthink
A phenomenon in which the desire for group harmony, results in an easy consensus, even if the final decision is not the best one
239
What is growth hormone?
Hormone released by the anterior pituitary that causes whole body growth and children and adolescence, and increasing cell turnover rates in adults
240
Who was Ludwig Gumplowicz?
Expanded upon conflict, the theory by proposing that society is shaped by war conquest
241
What are gustatory receptors?
Chemoreceptors on the tongue that responded to chemicals in food
242
Define a habit
Action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
243
Define habituation
A decrease in response to stimulus after repeated presentations
244
What are hair cells?
Sensory receptors found in the inner ear that respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves and changes the position and acceleration (used for balance)
245
Define hallucination a false sensory perception that occurs when a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium)
246
Define hallucinogens
Class of drugs, that distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input, creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions
247
Define the halo effect
A tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics
248
Who were Margaret and Harry Harlow?
Researchers known for their controversial experiments with isolated baby monkeys
249
What are health care disparities?
The population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and quality of healthcare across different social groups
250
Define heritability
The extent to which a behaviour is due to genetic factors
251
Define heuristics
Mental shortcuts used for problem-solving
Sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed
252
What are hindsight bias?
Tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already occurred
253
What is the hippocampus?
Brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe
It plays a key role in forming memories
254
What is histrionic personality disorder?
A psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the centre of attention
255
Define homogenous
The same throughout
Often used to describe a sample in which the participants have similar characteristics
256
Define humanisitic psychology
A psychological perspective that emphasizes an individuals inherent drive towards self-actualization
257
Define hypnotism
Structured interaction in which an individual is instructed to focus attention a particular way, relax, and let go
258
What is hypochondriasis?
A psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with having a serious illness
259
What is the hypophysis?
The pituitary gland
260
What is the hypothalamus?
Brain structure that is involved in many autonomic processes, including body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and sleep
261
Define iconic memory
The brief photographic memory for visual information, which decays in a few tenths of a second
262
Define id
According to Freud‘s psychoanalytic theory, is the source of energy and instincts that seeks to gain pleasure
263
Define the ideal self
Constructed out of experiences, expectations, and role models
The person one wishes to be
264
What is identity formation or individuation?
Development of a distinct personality
265
Define the illusory correlation
A perceived relationship between two things, even when none exist exists
266
Define implicit or procedural memory
Memory that involves conditioned, associations, and knowledge of how to do something
267
What is impression management or self-presentation?
The process whereby people attempt to manage their images by influencing others perceptions
268
What does "in-group" mean?
A group that an individual belongs to, and believes to be an integral part of who they are
269
What is incentive theory?
A theory that suggests that incentives (objects that either induce or discouraged behaviors) motivate human behaviour
270
Define inclusive fitness
A theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms promotes genetic success
271
Define incongruity
The emotional result when the real self fall short of the ideal self
272
Define infantile amnesia
A lack of explicit memory for events that occur occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years
273
What are information-processing models?
Models that use computer computers, as an analogy for understanding, cognitive processes, such as attention, perception, and memory
274
What is informational social influence?
The process of complying to do the right thing because other others “know something we don’t”
275
Define insecure attachment
Category of attachment styles in which infants are less likely to explore the environment in the presence of the mother and less likely to be soothed by her
276
What is insight learning?
Sudden and flash of inspiration that provide provides a solution to a problem
277
Define insomnia
Most common sleep disorder, characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep
278
Define instinct
Behaviours that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species
279
Define institutional discrimination
Unjust practises employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating processes or institutional objectives
280
Define instrumental conditioning
A form of associative learning based on consequences, in which rewards increase a frequency of behaviours and punishments decrease their frequency
The same as operant conditioning
281
Define intellectual disability
Classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives
282
Define intelligence
The ability to learn from experience, problem solved, and adapt to new situations
283
Define intergenerational mobility
A change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children within a family
284
What is the internal locus of control?
And individuals belief that can affect outcomes through their own actions
285
Define internal validity
How “well designed” a study is; how validated is to draw conclusions from the research based on the way it was constructed
286
What is an interneuron?
A neuron found completely within the central nervous system
287
Define intragenerational mobility
Describes the differences in social class between different members of the same generation
288
What is IPSP?
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
Slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell, moving the membrane potential of that cell further from threshold
289
What is an iris?
A pigment membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye
The iris regulates the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of the light
290
What is the James-Lange Theory?
The theory of emotion in which emotional experience is the result of physiological response responses
291
Define the just world phenomenon
Tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve
292
What is the justification of effort?
When people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort
293
What is the K-complex?
Large and slow wave with a duration of a half a second that occurs in stage 2 sleep
294
Define kinship
Familiar relations, including blood ties, family ties, and common ancestry
295
Define Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Six developmental stages of moral reasoning, which formed the basis of ethical behaviour
296
Define language
A symbolic system that is codified for communication
297
Define language acquisition
The process by which infants learn to understand and speak their native language
298
What is language acquision device?
And a feature unique to humans that allows mastery of language from limited exposure during early childhood
299
Define latent content
The unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underline dreams
300
Define latent functions
The unintended or less recognizable consequences or a social structure
301
Define latent learning
Learning that takes place in the absence of any observable behaviour to show that it has occurred
302
Define learned helplessness
A condition where an individual does not act, even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards
303
Define libido
The life, instinct, which drives behaviours focussed on survival, growth, creativity, pain, avoidance, and seeking pleasure
304
What is life course perspective?
Sociological theory that investigates key events in a person’s life and how they unfold overtime and lead to a person’s development
305
Define life expectancy
The number of years an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates
306
What is linguistic relativity hypothesis?
Asserts that the language one speaks, determines their thoughts and perspectives of the world
307
What is long-term memory?
Information that is retained, long-term, potentially indefinitely
308
What is long-term potentiation?
An increase in synaptic strength between two neurons following simultaneous firing
309
Define the looking glass self
The idea that a person‘s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others and society and the perceptions of others
310
What is the luteinizing hormone?
LH
A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads
311
Define a major depressive disorder
A psychological disorder, characterized by one or more depressive episodes, in which a person has felt worse than usual from most of the day, nearly every day, for at least two weeks
312
Define a manic episode
And experience of an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood
313
Define manifest content
According to Freud, the overt storyline of dreams
314
Define manifest functions
The intended and obvious consequences of a social structure
315
Define marginal poverty
Poverty, that is due to circumstantial conditions, such as a lack of stable employment
316
Who was Karl Marx?
Founder of conflict theory who argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who control production and those who provide the labour for production
317
Define Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow‘s pyramid of motivational factors from physiological needs, at the base, progressively up to higher level needs such as self actualization that must be met in order
318
Define master status
The status that dominates the other statuses and determines an individuals position in society
319
Define material culture
Consists of the physical objects that are particular to a culture
320
Define matriarchy
A social system where females are the primary authority figures
321
Define matrilineal descent
A system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother side are considered more important
322
What are mechanoreceptor?
A sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances, such as shape changes (being squashed, bent, pulled)
323
Define meditation
Mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way
324
What is the medulla oblongata?
Portion of the high brain at the controls, respiratory rate and blood pressure, and specialized digestive and respiratory functions
325
What is melatonin?
Hormone produced by the penal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles and seasonal functions
326
What are meninges?
The protective connective tissue wrappings of the central nervous system
327
Define a mental set
Tendency to fixate on ideas and solutions that have worked in the past, even if they may not apply to the current situation
328
Define mere exposure effect
The phenomenon where people develop a preference for things because they have been exposed to them
329
Define mere presence
The most basic level of “interaction” between individuals
When people are simply in each other‘s presence
330
Define meritocracy
And idealized, social stratification in which peoples social standings are judged based on merit alone
331
Define meta-analysis
Review of many studies to combine the results and find emergent patterns in an area of research
332
What is the method of loci?
A memory technique that involves imagining moving through a familiar place, and leaving visual representation topics to be remembered
333
What is the midbrain?
The portion of the brain responsible for visual and auditory startle reflexes
334
Who was Stanley Milgram?
Conducted research on obedience in which he asked subjects to administer a shock to what they thought was another subject. (who is just an actor.)
335
Define mindfulness-based stress reduction
MBSR
Protocol involving mindfulness meditation, that reduces pain, stress, and anxiety
336
Define mindguarding
When dissenting opinions are prevented from promoting a group by filtering out information that goes against the group beliefs
337
What are mirror neurons?
Neurons that fire when a particular behaviour or emotion is observed in another
338
What is the misinformation effect?
A tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the event
339
What are mixed methods?
Any two types of research methodology are combined in the same study, such as qualitative and quantitative or between subjects and within subjects
340
Define mnemonic
Any memory technique use to promote the retention and retrieval of information
341
Define modeling
Mechanism behind observational learning in which an observer sees a behaviour performed, then imitates the behaviour
342
Define monogamy
A form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other
343
Define mood
A person sustained internal emotion that colours their view of life
344
What is mood-dependent memory?
When learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state
345
Define a mood disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of abnormal mood, serious enough to cause significant personal distress
346
Define mores
Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced
347
Define the moro reflex
The startle reflex
348
Define mortality
The death rate in a population
349
Define multiculturalism
◦ Also known as pluralism
A perspective that endorse says equal standing for all cultural traditions
350
What is a multipolar neuron?
A neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites
351
What is myelin?
An insulating layer of membranes are wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body
352
What is narcissistic personality disorder?
A psychological disorder, characterized by grandiosity, and inflated sense of self
353
Define narcolepsy
Sleep disorder in which an individual experience is short bursts of periodic, overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods
354
What is negative feedback?
A biological process that maintains homeostasis by feeding back to promote the limitation of a biological product
355
Define negative reinforcement
The removal of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behaviour
Tends to increase the frequency of that behaviour
356
Define neural plasticity
A process that refers to the ability of the brain‘s pathways and synapses based on behaviour, the environment, and neural processes
357
What is a neuron?
The basic functional structural unit of the nervous system
358
What is a neurotransmitter?
A chemical released by a neuron that binds to receptors on the postsynaptic cell and causes it to either depolarize or hyperpolarize
359
What is a neutral stimulus?
A stimulus that does not elicit any intrinsic response
360
Define a night terror
Occurred during stage 3 when an individual appears terrified and may sit up or walk around
361
Define nociceptors
Pain receptors
362
What are nodes of Ranvier?
Gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons peripheral neurons that increases the speed of conduction
363
Define nonassociative learning
Learning that occurs in the absence of associating specific stimuli or events
364
Define nonverbal communication
Involves all the methods of communication that do not include words
365
What is norepinephrine?
NE
The neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at the postganglionic (organ level) synapse
366
Define normative social influence
When the motivation for compliance is a desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection
367
Define normative organizations
An organization where membership is based on morally relevant goals
368
Define norms
The visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society
369
What is the nucleus accumbens?
Structure located in the brain, stem that releases dopamine in response to many drugs, contributing to addictive behaviour
370
What is a null hypothesis?
The hypothesis that there is no experimental effect, and any differences if measured are due to chance
371
Define object permanence
The understanding that things continue to exist once they are out of sight
372
Define observational learning
A type of learning that occur occurs when a person watches another person
373
Define observational studies
A type of research characterized by minimal manipulation in an attempt to investigate phenomenon in their naturalistic state
374
What is obsessive-compulsive disorder?
OCD
A psychological disorder, characterized by repeated, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts, and repeated physical behaviours that are done in response to an obsession
375
What is the Oedipus complex?
This complex occurs during the stage when a male child is sexually attracted to his mother and hostile towards his father, who has seen his arrival
376
What are olfactory receptors?
Chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that respond to odour chemicals
377
Define operant conditioning
A form of associative learning based on consequences, in which rewards increase the frequency of behaviours and punishments decrease their frequency
378
What is the operational definition?
The specifications of experimental variables in terms that can be used by other researchers to replicate methodology
379
What is the optic disk?
The “Blindspot” of the eye, were axons of ganglion cells, the retina to form the optic nerve
380
What is the optic disk?
The nerve extending from the back of the eyeball to the brain that carries visual information
381
Define optimism bias
The belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us
382
What is the oral stage?
The first of Freud‘s five psychosexual stages, in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities, such as sucking and chewing
383
What is the organ of Corti?
The structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, the auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane
384
Define organization
A large group, more impersonal than a network, it comes together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently
385
What are ossicles?
The three small bones found in the middle ear (the malleus, the incus, and the stapes) that helped to amplify the vibrations from sound waves
386
Define the "out-group"
A group that an individual does not belong to
387
What is the outer ear?
The portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the exterior auditory canal
388
What is the oval window?
The membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear
389
Define overconfidence
And over estimation of the accuracy of one’s knowledge and judgements
390
What is a p-value?
Numerical value that gives the probability that a measure difference occurred due to chance
391
Define a pain disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by clinically important pain affected by psychological factors
392
What is the palmar grasp reflex?
In response to stroke a baby palm, the babies hand will grasp
This reflex lasts a few months
393
Define a panic disorder
A psychological disorder that is characterized by panic attacks that arecued by certain situations or frequently and unexpectedly
394
Define parallel processing
A system whereby many aspects of stimulus are processed simultaneously instead of a step-by-step or surreal fashion
395
What is paranoid personality disorder?
A psychological disorder, characterized by mistrust and misinterpretation of others, motives, and actions and suspicion of harm or betrayal
396
What is paranoid-type schizophrenia?
A psychological disorder characterized by psychosis is in the form of hallucinations and/or delusions, usually relating to a certain theme
397
Define parasomnia
Abnormal behaviours during sleep, including somnambolism and night terrors
398
What is the parasympathetic nervous system?
PNS
The division of the autonomic nervous system known as the “resting and digesting” system
It causes a decrease in body activities, such as heart rate and blood pressure
399
What is the parathyroid hormone?
A hormone produced and secreted by parathyroid glands that increases serum calcium levels
400
What is Parkinson's disease?
A movement disorder caused by the death of dopamine–releasing cells
401
Define patriarchy
A social system where the males are the primary authority figures
402
Define patrilineal descent
A system of lineage in which the relatives on the father side are considered more important
403
Who was Ivan Pavlov?
Famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell
404
What is peason correlation?
A numerical value between minus one and one that indicates how two variables correlate
And negative evaluate correlates and inverse relationship and a positive value indicates a direct relationship
Values further from indicate a stronger relationship
405
What is the peg word method?
Pneumonic strategy that involves assigning images to a sequence of numbers
406
What is penis envy?
Occur occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud, five psychosexual stage, when a female realizes she does not have a penis
407
What are peptide hormones?
A hormone made of amino acids that is generally hydrophilic and cannot generally cross the plasma membrane of cells
408
What is the peripheral nervous system?
All of the parts of the nervous system, except the brain and spinal cords
409
What is the peripheral route?
Cognitive root of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics
410
Define permissive parenting
Parenting style that creates a few rules and demands and little discipline
411
What is the person-situation controversy?
A disagreement about the degree to which a persons reaction in a given situation is due to their personality or is due to the situation itself
412
Define personal identity
A distinct sense of self, including personally defined attributes
413
Define personality
The nuance complex individual pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaviour associated with each person
414
Define personality disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by an enduring, rigid set of personality traits that deviate from cultural norms, in Paris functioning, and causes distress
415
Define personality trait
A generally stable predisposition toward a certain behaviour
416
What is the pehnomenological method?
The use of introspection to explore the nature of phenomenon, often related to perception or subjective experience
417
Define phenotype
The observable character characteristics and traits of an organism
418
Define pheromone
A chemical signal that causes a social response in members of the same species
419
Define phobia
A strong unreasonable, fear that almost always causes either general anxiety or a full panic attack
420
What is the phonological loop?
Part of working memory that allows for repetition of verbal information to aid within encoding
421
What are photorecptors?
A receptor that responses to light
422
Define physical attractiveness stereotype
The tendency of people to write attractive individuals more favourably for personality traits
423
Who was Jean Piaget?
Developmental psychologist who formulated a four stage theory of development for children
424
What is the pineal gland?
Region of the brain responsible for the production of melatonin, a hormone that influences sleep/wake cycles and seasonal functions
425
Define the placebo effect
The phenomenon that if a group of participants simply believe believes that it has been given a treatment, this can lead to measurable effect
426
Define polyandry
A form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man
427
Define polygyny
A form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman
428
What is PSG?
Polysomnography
Multi model technique for measuring physiological processing sleep, including EEG, EMG, and EOG
429
Define positive punishment
The introduction of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behaviour
Tends to decrease the likelihood of that behaviour
430
Define positive reinforcement
Reward immediately following a behaviour that increases the frequency of that behaviour (for example, praise)
431
Define posive transfer
When old information facilitates the learning of new information
432
What is PTSD?
Post traumatic stress disorder
Disorder characterized by reexperiencing, a traumatic event through flashbacks or nightmares
433
What is the posterior pituitary gland?
Nervous tissue located at the rear of the pituitary that secretes two hormones made by the hypothalamus: oxytocin and ADH
434
What is the postganglionic neuron?
In the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has a cell body in an autonomic ganglion, and who is axon synapses with the target organ
435
Define power
The ability of a study to pick up an effect if one is indeed present
This is related to factors such as large sample size and low variation
436
Define predictive validity
The extent to which a psychometric instrument predicts results along a well-known test or in variable of interest
437
What is the prefrontal cortex?
Interior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors, such as planning, sequences, social responses, and decision-making
438
What is the preganglionic neuron?
In the autonomic division of the PNS, neuron that has its cell body located in the CNS, and his axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion
439
Define prejudice
Thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone hold about a group that are based on a pre-judgment or biased, thinking about a group and its members
440
What is the primacy effect?
Tendency to better call the first items on a list
441
What are primary groups?
Groups that apply a more important role in an individual’s life
These groups are usually smaller, and include those with whom the individual engages with in person
442
What are primary reinforcers?
Unconditioned consequences that are innately, satisfying or desirable
May be biologically driven
443
Define priming
An effect of implicit memory, whereby exposure to a given stimulus “primes“ or prepares the brain to respond to a later stimulus
444
What is the principle of aggregation?
The idea that an attitude affects a person’s aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act
445
Define proactive interference
A type of memory interference that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently
446
What is progesterone?
A steroid hormone that maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of a fertilized ovum
447
Define projection bias
Occurs when we assume others have the same beliefs we do, due to our tendency to look for similarities between ourselves and others
448
What is prolactin?
A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands, stimulating them to produce milk
449
What are proprioceptors?
A receptor that responds to changes in the body position, such as stretch on attending, or contraction of a muscle
450
Define prospective memory
Remembering to do something in the future
451
What is psychoanalytic theory?
According to this theory, personality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories
452
Define psychological disorder
A set of behavioural and or psychological symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms and are severe enough to cause significant personal distress
453
Define psychological fixation
Occurs in psychoanalytic theory, when parents either frustrate or overindulge a child’s expression of sensual pleasure at a certain age, and as an adult, the individual, continues to seek sexual pleasure through behaviours related to that stage
454
Define psychometrics
The art and science of measuring psychological processes
455
What are psychosexual stages?
According to Freud‘s cycle analytic theory, individuals processing through five psychosexual stages, one corresponding to the part of the body that is the focus of sensual pleasure
456
Define punishment
In operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that it proceeding behaviour will be repeated
457
Define pupil
A hole in the centre of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball
458
Define qualitative
Descriptive, as opposed to numerical
Often used to refer to data
459
Define quantitative
Numerical, as opposed to descriptive
Often used to describe data
460
Define race
The biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual
461
Defince racism
Prejudices and discriminatory actions that are based on Race (or ethnicity), or hold that one race (or ethnicity) is inferior to another
462
What is the randomized block technique?
A technique used by researchers who wish to make experimental and control groups similar along a set of variables
463
What is REM?
Rapid eye movement
Burst of quick eye movements present in the last stage of sleep
464
What is the rational-legal authority?
A form of leadership that is organized around, rational legal rules
465
Define recall
Retrieving information from memory
466
Define the recency effect
Tendency to recall, the last items presented in a list
467
Define reciprocal determinism
A reciprocal interaction between a person’s behaviors, personal factors, and environmental factors
468
Define recognition
Retrieving information for memory with the use of cues
469
Define reconstructive memory
Theory that memory is constructed rather than a perfect recollection of an event
470
What is a reference group?
A group that serves as a standard measure that people compare themselves to
471
Define reflex
Automatic behaviours that occur without thinking
472
What is a reflex arc?
A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to stimulus
473
Define rehearsal
Technique of repeating verbal information to one’s phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory
474
Define reinforcement
A consequence that increases the likelihood that a proceeding behaviour will be repeated
Two types are positive and negative reinforcement
475
What is a reinforcement schedule?
The frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered, based on a number of target behaviours (ratio) or on a time interval (interval)
476
Define relative poverty
An inability to meet the average standard of living within a society
477
Define a relative refractory period
The period of time following an action potential when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential
478
Define relearning
The process of learning material that was originally learned
479
Define reliable
The tendency of a survey or other instrument of measurement to produce similar results under similar conditions and measure what they are purported to
480
Define religiosity
The extent of religion influences a person’s life
481
What is the REM stage?
The final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements (REM) and beta waves, which are seen in individuals when they are awake
482
What is replacement level fertility?
The number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people in the population who die
483
What is representativeness heuristic?
A mental shortcut in which one judge is the likelihood of things based on typical mental representations, or examples of those things
484
Define polygamy
A form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously
485
Define reproductive memory
Theory that suggest memory recall, occurs through storage of the original stimulus input and subsequent recall
486
Define residential segregation
The separation of groups into different neighborhoods, biracial, ethnic, and/or socioeconomic differences
487
What is residual-type schizophrenia?
A psychological disorder in which the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some symptoms are still present in milder forms
488
What is resource model of attention?
States that if multiple tasks exceed the limit of attention, they cannot be done simultaneously
489
Defind retention interval
The amount of time elapsed since information was learned, and when it must be recalled
490
What is reticular formation?
Also known as the reticular activating system
Structures in the brain, stem that are important for alertness and arousal. (as in wakefulness)
491
What is the retina?
The innermost layer of the eyeball
It is made up of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells
492
Define retroactive interference
A type of memory interference that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously
493
Define retrograde amnesia
Occurs when Won is unable to recall information that was previously encoded
494
What are rods?
Receptors in the retina that respond to dim light and provide black-and-white vision
495
Who was Carl Rogers?
Considered the founder of humanistic psychology, who pioneer the person centred approach to therapy
496
Define role conflict
Occurs when there is a conflict in societies expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person (for example “male“ and “nurse“)
497
Define role exit
The process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one self identity to take on a new role
498
Define role strain
When a single status results in conflicting expectations
499
What is the rooting reflex?
In response to touching one of the babies cheeks, it will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to “root” for a nipple
500
What is saltatory conduction?
A rapid form of neural conduction in which the action potential “jumps“ along the nodes of Ranvier
501
Define sample size
The number of participants in a study
502
Define sampling bias
Occurs when some individuals from a population have a greater likelihood of being selected than others
503
Define sanctions
Rewards and punishments for behaviours that are in accord with or against norms
504
What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
This hypothesis asserts the people understand their world through language and the language, intern, shapes of people experience their world
505
Define scapegoat
The people are group who are unfairly blamed for something, or at whom displaced aggression is directed
506
What is the Schachter-Singer theory?
Theory of emotion that asserts that the experience of physiological arousal occurs first and is followed by a conscious cognitive interpretation that allows her identification of the emotion
507
Define schemas
Mental frameworks or blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience
508
What is a schizoaffective disorder?
A psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms
509
What is a schizoid personality disorder?
A psychological disorder, characterized by interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members
510
Define schizophrenia
A psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and impairment and functionindg
511
What is schizophreniform disorder?
A psychological disorder, characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia, present for a period of one to six months, during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning
512
What is schizotypal personality disorder?
A psychological disorder, characterized by constricting or inappropriate affect, magical or paranoid, thinking, and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions
513
What is a Schwann cell?
One of the two peripheral nervous system, supporting (glial) cells
Won sells form the Milan sheath on axons of peripheral neurons
514
What is the sclera?
The white portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball
515
Define a secondary group
A larger and more impersonal group than a primary group, which interacts for specific reasons for relatively short periods of time
516
What are secondary reinforers?
Condition degree reinforcers that are learned through their relationships with primary reinforcers
517
Define sect
A religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it was formed
518
Define secure attachment
An attachment style that forms when an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs
519
Define selection bias
Non-random process in the selection of participants, experimental groups, or any other process that introduced potential bias into a research study
520
What is psychoanalytic therapy?
This therapy approach help helps a patient become aware of their unconscious sources for emotional issues and conflicts that are causing difficulties
521
Define selective attention
The process by which one input is selected out of the field of environmental stimuli
522
Define selective priming
Predisposition to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently
523
Define self-actualization or actualizing tendency
According to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to realize their human potential
524
Define self-concept or self-identity
The sum of an individual’s knowledge and understanding of themself
525
Define self-consciousness
Awareness of one’s self
526
Define self-efficacy
The belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness
527
Define self-esteem
One’s overall self evaluation of one’s self-worth
528
What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?
When stereotypes lead a person to behave in such a way as to affirm the original stereotypes
529
What is self-handicapping?
A strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self blaming when they do poorly
530
What is the self-reference effect?
The tendency to better remember information or relevant to ourselves
531
What is self-schemas?
The beliefs and ideas people have about themselves
532
What is the self-serving bias?
The tendency to attribute our success to ourselves and our failures to others or the external environment
533
What is self verification?
Social psychology theory that individuals wish to be understood in terms of their deeply held beliefs in a way that is consistent with self-concept
534
Define semantic memory
Memory for factual information
535
What are the semicircular canals?
Three look like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance
536
Define sensitization
And increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentations of a stimulus
537
Define sensory memory
The initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Sensory memory is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays
538
What is the serial position effect?
What information is presented in the list, individuals are more likely to recall the first and last items presented
539
Define shaping
In operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate, proximal behaviours until a final, desired behaviour is achieved
540
What is short-term memory?
Memory that is limited in duration and capacity
541
What is signal detection theory?
A theory that attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (considered the “noise“)
542
What is significant difference?
A difference between between two measurements that is unlikely to be due simply to trance, according to a predetermined threshold
543
Who was B. F. Skinner?
Founder of behaviourism who measured the effects of reward and punishment on shaping behaviour
544
What is sleep apnea?
Sleep disorder in which the individual intermittently stops breathing during sleep, and may wake up, gasping for breath
545
What is the sleep cycle?
One progression through sleep stage 1 through 4 in sequence, followed by an ascension from 4 back to 1 and then a transition into a sleep
Typically takes about 90 minutes
546
What are sleep spindles?
Bursts of waves present in sleep stage 2
547
Define social capital
The potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility
548
Define social cognition
The ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception
549
What is the social cognitive perspective?
According to this perspective, personality is formed by reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors
550
Define social construct
A social mechanism or practice that is created and sustained by society
551
Define social constructionism
Sociological theory that argues that reality is constructed, not inherited
552
Define social cues
Verbal or nonverbal hints that guide, social interactions
553
Define social dysfunction
A process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society
554
Define social epidemiology
The study of the distribution of health and disease across a population using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness
555
What is the social faciliation effect?
The phenomenon that describes how people tend to perform simple, well learn tasks better when other people are present, while difficult, novel tasks are performed more poorly in front of others
556
What are social facts?
The elements that serve some function society, such as the laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up a society
557
Define social identity
The social definitions of self, including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like
558
What are social institutions?
A complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form, but they contributes to social order by governing the behaviour of people
559
Define social loafing
The phenomenon where people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group, and if they are individually accountable
560
Define social mobility
The ability to move up or down within the social stratification system
561
Define social network
A web of social relationship relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked as as well as indirectly connected to people
562
Define social perception
The ability to understand others in our social world
563
What is socialism?
Economic system where resources and production are collectively owned
564
Define socialization
The process through which people learn to be proficient members of society
565
What is social phobia?
And unreasonable, paralyzing, fear of feeling embarrassed, or humiliated while one is watched by others
566
Define social reproduction?
The phenomenon of social inequality transmitted from one generation to the next
567
Define social roles
Expectations for people of a given social status
568
Define social stratification
The way that people are categorized in society
569
What is social support?
The perception that one is cared for and part of a social network
Supportive resources can be tangible or emotional
570
Define society
A group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area
571
Define sociobiology
The study of how biology and evolution have affect affected human social behaviour
572
Define socioeconomic status
SES
Prestige power associated with one standing in society due to income, and other factors
573
Define sociology
The study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by society
574
What is a soma?
The cell body of a neuron
575
What is a somatoform disorder?
A psychological disorder characterized by a variety of physical symptoms over an extended time period
576
Define somnambulism
Sleepwalkindg
577
What is source monitoring error?
A specific type of error of recollection where a memory is incorrectly attributed to the wrong source
578
Define source traits
The factors underlying human personality and behaviour
579
What is spatial summation?
Integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSPs and IPSPs) for multiple sources
580
Define specific phobia
A persistent, strong, and unreasonable, fear of a certain object or situation
581
Define spontaneous recovery
In classical conditioning, a reoccurrence of a previously extinct conditioned response in the presence of a condition stimulus
582
What is the spotlight model?
Model for visual attention, with a spotlight representing one’s attention and it it’s ability to move focus onto different targets
583
What is the spreading activation theory?
A theory of information retrieval that involves a search process where specific nodes are activated, which leads to the activation of related notes, and so on
584
Define state
Situational facts that can influence personality and behaviour
States are unstable, temporary, and variable
585
Define state capitalism
A system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government informing laws and regulations
586
Define status
Sociological term refers to all the socially defined positions within a society
587
Define stereotypes
Oversimplified ideas about groups of people, based on characteristics
588
Define stereotype threat
Refers to a self fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
589
What is a steroid hormone?
Or hormone, derived from cholesterol that is hydrophobic and can easily cross the cell membrane, thus receptors for steroids are found intracellularly
590
Define stigma
Extreme disapproval of a person or group based on the person or groups, actual or perceived deviance from society
591
What are stimulants?
Class of drugs at speed up body functions and neural activity
592
Define stranger anxiety
Development typical anxiety displayed by children aged 8 to 12 months towards strangers
593
Define structural poverty
Poverty, due to structural affects such as systemic oppression or lack of infrastructure and reliable social institutions
594
Define subculture
A segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society
595
Define the sucking reflex
In response to anything touching the roof of the baby’s mouth, it will begin to suck
596
Define summation
The integration of input from many presynaptic neurons by a single postsynaptic neuron, either temporarily or specially
597
Define superego
According to Freud‘s psychoanalytic theory, the super ego inhibits the ID and influences the ego to follow moralistic rather than realistic goals
598
What are survey studies?
Studies that use questionnaires to explore a research variable
599
Define symbolic culture
Consists of symbols that carry a particular meaning and are recognized by people of the same culture
600
Define symbolic interactionism
A microlevel theory and sociology which examines the relationship between individuals and society by focussing on communication, the exchange of information through language and symbols
601
What is the sympathetic nervous system?
SNS
Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system, directing the “fight or flight” response to prepare the body for action
It increases heart rate, blood pressure, and directs the adrenal gland to release stress hormones
602
What are synapses?
A neuron to neuron, neuron to organ, or muscle cell to muscle cell junction
603
What is the synaptic cleft?
A microscopic space between the axon of neuron and the cell body or dendrites of a second neuron, or between the axon of a neuron and an organ
604
Define telencephalon
The cerebral hemispheres
605
What is temperament?
Dispositional emotional excitability
606
Define temporal summation
Summation by a postsynaptic cell of input from a single source overtime
607
What is the thalamus?
A relay station and major integrating area for sensory impulses
608
What is a thermoreceptor?
A receptor that responds to changes in temperature
609
What are theta waves?
Waves of low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency present during stage 1 of sleep
610
What is the tonic neck reflex?
In response to its head being turned to one side, a baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow
611
What is top-down processing?
A type of information processing that occurs when the brain applies experience and expectations to interpret sensory information
612
Define traditional authority
A form of leadership or power is due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice
613
Define trait
Internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality that should be consistent to cross most situations
614
Define trial and error
Strategy of problem-solving that involves trying different alternatives sequential until successes achieved
615
What are tropic hormones?
A hormone that controls the release of another hormone
616
What are twin studies?
Studies incorporate research into different types of twins to gain insight into heritability
617
What is the tympanic membrane?
The membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear
It is also known as the eardrum
618
What is a type one error?
Researchers incorrectly reject the null hypothesis
An example of a false positive
619
What is a type two error?
Researchers except the null hypothesis when it is false
An example of a false negative
620
Define an unconditioned response
A response that automatically follows an unconditioned stimulus, without necessitating learning and conditioning to create the link
621
Define an unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus elicits an unconditioned response automatically, without necessitating learning, and conditioning to create the link
622
What is undifferentiated-types schizophrenia?
A physiological disorder characterized by the basic criteria for schizophrenia, common but symptoms that do not fit into one of the other subtypes
623
What are universal emotions?
Six major emotions that appear to be universal lacrosse cultures: happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, discussed, and anger
624
Define universal grammar
Basic rules of language, presume to be in Nate, that allow the human mind to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive development years an early childhood
625
Define upward mobility
An increase in social class
626
Define urbanization
The growth of urban areas as a result of global change
Urbanization is tied to industrialization
627
Define utilitarian organization
An organization in which members get paid for their efforts, such as businesses
628
What are vagus nerves?
Very large mixed nerves that innervate virtually every visceral organ
They are especially important in transmitting parasympathetic input to the heart and digestive smooth muscle
629
Define values
A culture standard for evaluating what is good or bad
630
What is a variable-interval schedule?
Reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after an unpredictable time interval
631
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
Reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after an unpredictable number of occurrences of a behaviour
632
What is the visual cortex?
The area of the occipital lobe responsible for processing visual information
633
What is the visuospatial sketchpad?
Allows for the repetition of visuospatial information (images) aid with encoding it into memory
634
What is the walking/stepping reflex?
Who is my favourite girl in a response to the souls of a baby’s feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to “walk” by placing one foot in front of the other
635
Who was Max Webber?
Conflict theorist, who modified and tempered many of Marx‘s ideas on society
636
What is Weber’s law?
This law pertains to sensory perception and dictates it to stimuli muster by a constant proportion in order for their difference to be perceptible
637
Define welfare capitalism
A system in which most of the economy is private, with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society
638
What is Wernicke’s area?
This area of the brain, located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe, it is involved with the comprehension of speech and written language
639
What is white matter?
Myelinated axons
640
Define withdrawal
And uncomfortable and often painful experience that many accompany, the discontinuing of a drug
641
What is within-subjects design?
Comparisons are made at different time points for the same group
642
Define working memory
Short-term memory for information in immediate awareness, consisting of four components: central executive, a phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and an episodic buffer
643
What is Yerkes-Dodson law?
Law that asserts that moderate level of arousal creates optimal performance
Two little arousal leads to complacency and too much arousal can be overwhelming
644
Define negative punishment
The removal of a positivr or rewarding stimulus that decreases the likelihood of that behaviour
645
Define social behaviorism
The idea that the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others
646
What is a somatoform disorder?
A psychological disorder characterized primarily by physical symptoms and concerns, but the symptoms are not explainable medically and do not improve with medical treatment
