Sensation, Perception, & Cognition Flashcards
(315 cards)
1
Q
What are sensory receptors designed to detect?
A
One type of stimulus from either the interior of the body or the external environment
◦ Each sensory receptor receives only one kind of information and transmit that information to sensory neurons which can intern convey it to the central nervous system
2
Q
How does the brain know the difference between the stimulation of visual receptors and a factory receptors?
A
◦ Sensory receptors the detect stimuli from the outside world are exteroceptors
◦ Receptors are respond to internal stimuli are interoceptors
3
Q
What is an important distinction between sensory receptors based on?
A
The type of stimulus they detect
4
Q
What are the five types of sensory receptors?
A
- Mechanoreceptors
- Chemoreceptors
- Nociceptors
- Thermoreceptors
- Electromagnetic receptors
5
Q
What do mechanoreceptors respond to?
A
Mechanical disturbances
◦ Often through structures, such as Pacinian corpuscles, auditory hair cell, vestibular hair cells
6
Q
What are Pacinian corpuscles?
A
Pressure sensor is located deep in the skin
◦ They are shaped like an onion and composed of concentric layers of specialized membranes
◦ When they are distorted by firm pressure on the skin, the nerve endings become depolarized and the signal travels up the dendrite
7
Q
What are auditory hair cells?
A
Specialized cell found in the cochlea of the inner ear
◦ It detects vibrations caused by sound waves
8
Q
What are vestibular hair cells?
A
◦ Located with special organs called, semi circular canals, found in the inner ear
◦ They rolled to detect acceleration and position or relative to gravity
9
Q
What do chemoreceptors respond to?
A
Particular chemicals
◦ Examples being olfactory receptors, and gustatory receptors
10
Q
What do olfactory receptors detect?
A
Airborne chemicals and allow us to smell things
11
Q
What do gustatory receptors detect?
A
These are our taste buds and allow us to taste things
12
Q
What do nociceptors detect?
A
These are pain receptors
◦ They are stimulated by tissue injury
◦ They are the simplest type of sensory receptor, generally consisting of a free nerve ending the detect chemical signals of tissue damage
◦ They can be somatic or automatic
◦ Automatic paint receptors do not provide the conscious mind with clear pain information, but give a sensation of dull, aching pain
◦ They also can create the illusion of pain on the skin, when the nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin (referred pain)
13
Q
What is referred pain?
A
◦ Occurs with nociceptors
◦ The illusion of pain on the skin, when nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin
14
Q
What do Thermoreceptors detect?
A
Stimulated by changes in temperature
◦ There are automatic and somatic examples
◦ Peripheral thermal receptors fall into three categories: cold, sensitive, warm, sensitive, and thermal nociceptors (which detect painfully hot stimuli)
15
Q
What are the three types of peripheral Thermoreceptors?
A
- Cold sensitive
- Warm sensitive
- Thermal nociceptors (which detect painfully hot stimuli)
16
Q
What do electromagnetic receptors detected?
A
◦ Stimulated by electromagnetic waves
◦ In humans, the only examples are the rods and cone cells of the retina of the eye (photoreceptors)
◦ In other animals, electroreceptors and magneticoreceptors are separate
17
Q
What are the four properties that need to be communicated to the central nervous system regarding sensory stimuli?
A
- Stimulus modality
- Stimulus location
- Stimulus intensity
- Stimulus duration
18
Q
What is stimulus modality?
A
The type of stimulus
◦ The CNS determines the stimulus modality based on which type of receptor is firing
19
Q
What is stimulus location?
A
Is communicated by the receptive field of the sensory receptor sending the signal
◦ Localization of a stimulus can be improved by overlapping receptive fields of neighbouring interceptors
◦ Discrimination between two separate stimuli can be improved by lateral inhibition of neighbouring receptors
20
Q
What is stimulus intensity?
A
Is encoded by the frequency of action potential
◦ The dynamic range, or range of intensity that can be detected by sensory receptors, can be expanded by range fractionation (including multiple groups of receptors with limited ranges to detect a wider range overall)
◦ ex. The human cone cells responding to different, but overlapping ranges of wavelength to detect the full visual spectrum of light
21
Q
What is stimulation duration?
A
May or may not be coded, explicitly
◦ There are tonic receptors and phasic receptors
22
Q
Differentiate between tonic receptors and phasic receptors
A
◦ Tonic receptors: fire action, potential, as long as a stimulus continues. However, these receptors are subject to adaptation, and the frequency of action potentials decreases as the stimulus continues at the same level.
◦ Phasic receptors: only fire action potential when the stimulus begins, and do not explicitly communicate the duration of the stimulus. These receptors are important for communicating changes in stimuli and essentially adapt immediately if assistant continues at the same level.
23
Q
What is the ability to adapt to stimulus important for?
A
Property of sensory receptors
◦ This allows the brain to tune out unimportant information from the environment
24
Q
What does adaptation refer to regarding stimuli?
A
A decrease in firing frequency when the intensity of a stimulus remains constant
◦ ie. Think walking into a kitchen that smells of baking. Within five minutes, the smell of baking will be less intense.
◦ The nervous system is programmed to respond to changing stimuli, and not so much to constant stimuli, because for the most part, constant stimuli are not a threat where is changing stimuli might be need to be dealt with
25
Define proprioception
Refers to awareness of self (awareness of body position) and is known as your kinesthetic self
26
What are examples of a proprioceptor?
◦ The muscle spindle, a mechanoreceptor
◦ Golgi tendon organs
◦ Joint capsule receptors
27
What is the function of a muscle spindle?
◦ A mechanoreceptor
◦ A sensory organ specialized to detect muscle stretch
28
What is the function of Golgi tendon organs?
They monitor tension and tendons
29
What is the function of joint capsule receptors?
They detect pressure, tension, and movement in the joints
30
What kind of information is important during activity, when precise feedback is for coordinated motion
Proprioception – which allows us to know the position of our body parts
31
What portion of the CNS would you expect to require input for proprioceptors?
The cerebellum, which is responsible for motor coordination
32
What senses rely on chemo receptors in the mouth and nasal passages?
◦ Gustation
◦ Olfaction
33
What does gestation refer to?
Taste
34
What does olfaction refer to?
Smell
35
What are the five flavours that taste receptors can distinguish?
1. Suite (glucose)
2. Salty
3. Bitter (basic)
4. Sour (acidic)
5. Umani (amino acids and nucleotides)
36
What are taste receptors composed of?
◦ Also known as taste buds
◦ Composed of a bunch of specialized, epithelial cells, shaped roughly like an onion
◦ In its centre is a taste poor, with taste hairs, the detect food chemicals
37
How do taste buds transmit information regarding taste?
Information about taste is transmitted by cranial nerves to an area of the brain in temporal lobe, not far from where the brain receives all factory information
38
What is the nasopharynx?
The nasal cavity
39
How is olfaction accomplished?
◦ By olfaction receptors in the roof of the nasopharynx
◦ The receptors detect airborne chemicals, the dissolve in the mucus covering the nasal membrane, allowing humans to distinguish thousands of different smells
40
How does information regarding smell get from our nose to our brain?
◦ Olfactory nerves project directly to the old factory bulbs of the brain, which are located in the temporal lobe of the brain near the limbic system, an area import for memory and motion (which may explain why certain smells, can bring back vivid memory and feelings.)
41
Why concern smells, bring back, vivid memories and feelings?
Likely because olfactory nerves directly to the old factory bulbs of the brain which are located in the temporal lobe of the brain near the limbic system, which is important for memory emotion
42
How is the perception of smell either being good or bad determined?
It is entirely learned, based on experiences with those smells
43
What are pheromones?
◦ Chemical signals that cause a social response in members of the same species
44
What comprise the outer ear?
◦ The auricle/pinna
◦ The external auditory canal
45
What comprise the middle ear?
◦ The obstacles
◦ The malleus (hammer)
◦ The incus (anvil)
◦ The stapes (the stirrup)
46
What separates the middle ear and the outer ear?
The tympanic membrane or eardrum
47
What does the stapes attached to?
The oval window
48
What is the oval window?
A membrane that divides the middle and inner ear
49
What structures make up the inner ear?
◦ The cochlea
◦ The semi circular canals
◦ The utricle
◦ The saccule
50
What do the semi circular canals, the utricle, and the saccule important for?
Important to the sense of balance
51
What is the round window?
A membrane covered hole in the cochlea, near the oval window
◦ It releases excess pressure
52
What is the eustachian tube?
◦ Also known as the auditory tube
◦ A passageway from the back of the throat to the middle ear
◦ It functions to equalize the pressure on both side sides of the eardrum and is the cause of the "popping" one experiences on an airplane
53
What is the mechanism of hearing?
◦ Sound waves enter the external ear to pass into the auditory canal, causing the eardrum to vibrate
◦ The malleus is attached to the eardrum, receives the vibrations, which are passed on to the incus and then to the stapes
◦ The bones of the middle ear are arranged to amplify sound vibrations passing through the middle ear
◦ The stapes contacts the oval window and vibrations of the oval window, create pressure waves in the perilymph and the endolymph
◦ Pressure waves in the endolymph caused vibration of the basil membrane, which is covered with auditory receptors called hair cells, which have cilia (hairs) projecting from their apical (top) surfaces (opposite the membrane)
◦ The hair contact the temporal membrane (roof) and when the base membrane moves, the hairs are dragged across the tectorial membrane and they bent
◦ The displacement of these hairs opens ion channels in the hair cells, which result in neurotransmitter release
◦ Dendrites from bipolar auditory afferent neurons are stimulated by hair cells
◦ The outer ear and inner ear convey sound waves to the cochlea, and the organ of court in the cochlea is a primary site of which auditory stimuli are detected
54
What are the perilymph and the endolymph?
The fluids in the cochlea
55
What is the process for sound vibrations sensed?
They are first conveyed through air, next through bone, and then through liquid before being sensed
56
What is the primary site at which auditory stimuli are detected?
The organ of corti in the cochlea
57
What is the order from sound to hearing?
◦ Sound waves
◦ Auricle
◦ External auditory canal
◦ Tympanic membrane
◦ Malleus
◦ Incus
◦ Stapes
◦ Oval window
◦ Perilymph
◦ Endolymph
◦ Basilar membrane
◦ Auditory hair cells
◦ Tectorial membrane
◦ Neurotransmitters stimulate bipolar, auditory neurons
◦ Brain
◦ Perception
58
What is the pitch of sound distinguished by?
Pitch (frequency) of sound is distinguished by which regions of the basilar membrane vibrate, stimulating, different auditory neurons
59
What is the basilar membrane?
Thick and sturdy near the oval window and gradually becomes thin and floppy near the apex of the cochlea
60
How does frequency change in the cochlea?
◦ Low frequency (long wavelength) sounds stimulate hair cells at the Apex of the cochlear duck, furthest away from the oval window
◦ High-pitched sounds stimulate hair cells at the base of the cochlea, near the oval window
61
How is loudness of a sound distinguished?
By the amplitude of vibration
◦ Larger vibrations, cause more frequent action potentials in auditory neurons
62
How can the auditory system determine the source of a sound?
◦ By the difference detected between the two ears
63
Where is sound stimuli processed?
In the auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe of the brain
64
What is the vestibular complex made up of?
◦ The three semi circular canals (the utricle, the saccule, and the ampullae)
65
What are the three semi circular canals filled with?
Endolymph
◦ They also contain hair cells that detect motion
66
What is the function of the three semi circular canals?
◦ Not to sound, but rather rotational acceleration of the head
◦ They are innervated by offering neurons which sent balance information to the ponds, cerebellum, and other areas
◦ The vestibular complex monitors, both static equilibrium and linear acceleration, which contribute to your sense of balance
67
What is the eye structure designed to detect?
Visual stimuli
68
How does the eye detect visual stimuli?
The structures of the eye first form an image on the retina, which detects light and converts the stimuli to action potential to send to the brain
69
How does light enter the eye?
By passing through the cornea
70
What is the cornea?
The clear portion at the front of the eye
◦ It is continuous at a border with the white of the eye
71
What happens to light as it passes through the cornea?
◦ Light is bent or refracted as it passes through the cornea (which is highly curved and thus acts as a lens), since the refractive index of the cornea is higher than that of air
72
What is the Scalera?
The weight of the eye
73
What is beneath the sclera?
A layer called the choroid
74
What is the choroid?
It contains darkly pigmented cells, this pigmentation absorbs excess light within the eye
75
What is beneath the choroid?
The retina
76
What is the retina?
The surface upon which light is focused
77
What is just inside the cornea?
The interior chamber (front chamber)
78
What does the interior chamber contain?
Fluid called aqueous humour
79
What is at the back of the anterior chamber?
A membrane called the iris
80
What is the opening of the iris called?
The pupil
81
What is the iris?
The coloured part of the eye
82
What do the muscle muscles in the iris regulate?
The diameter of the pupil
83
What is just behind the iris?
The posterior chamber
84
What does the posterior chamber contain?
Aqueous humour
85
What is located in the back part of the posterior chamber?
The lens
86
What is the function of the lens?
Its role is defined two in the ankle of incoming light, so that the beams are perfectly focussed upon the retina
87
How is the curvature of the lens varied?
By ciliary muscles
88
What does light pass through on route from the lens to the retina?
The vitreous chamber
89
What does the vitreous chamber contain?
A thick, jelly like fluid called vitreous humour
90
What is located at the back of the eye and contains rods and cones?
The retina
91
What does the retina contain?
It contains electromagnetic receptor cells (photoreceptors) known as rods and cones, which are responsible for detecting light
92
What are the rods and cones synapse with nerve cells called?
Bipolar cells
93
What do bipolar cells contain?
One axon and one dendrite
94
Where does information go from bipolar cells?
Bipolar cells have synapses with ganglion cells, whose actions comprise the optic nerve, which travels from each eye towards the occipital lobe of the brain were complex analysis of a visual and image occurs
95
What is the optic disk?
The point on the retina where many axons from ganglion cells converged to form the optic nerve
◦ It is also known as the blind spot because it contains no photoreceptors
96
What is the macula?
A small, sensitive area in the centre of the retina
◦ It is crucial for Sharpe, detailed central vision
97
What is in the center of the macula?
The fovea centralis
98
What is the fovea centralis?
The focal point, which contains only cones and is responsible for extreme visual acuity
99
When you stare directly at something, what do you focus the image on?
The fovea
100
What is the organization of the retina, from the posterior wall of the retine to the axons of the ganglion cells?
1. Posterior wall of retina
2. Rod cells (photoreceptors)
3. Cones cells (photoreceptors)
4. Bipolar cells
5. Ganglion cells
6. Axons of ganglion cells (will become the optic nerve)
101
What do rods and cones contain?
Special pigment proteins that change their tertiary structure upon absorbing light
◦ Each protein, called an opsin, is bound to one molecule and contains one molecule of retinal, which is dry from vitamin A
102
In the dark, when rods and cones are resting, what is the form of retinal?
Retinal has several trans double bonds and one cis double bond
◦ In this confirmation, retinal and it's associated option keep a sodium channel open, and the cell remains depolarized
103
What happens to retinal upon absorbing a photon of light?
Retinol is converted to the all-trans form
◦ Which triggers a series of reactions that ultimately closes the sodium channel, and the cell hyperpolarizes
104
What do rods and cones synapse on?
Bipolar cells
105
Because of the depolarization of rods and cones in the dark…
Both types of photoreceptors release, the neurotransmitter glutamate onto the bipolar cells, inhibiting them from firing
106
What happens upon the absorption of a photon of light in the subsequent hyperpolarization?
The photoreceptor stops, releasing glutamate and And because glutamate has an inhibitory effect on the bipolar cells, with glutamine is no longer present, the bipolar cells can depolarize
◦ This causes depolarization of the ganglion cells, and an action potential along the axon of the ganglion cell
◦ All of the axons of the ganglion cells together make up the optic nerve to the brain
107
How is night vision accomplished?
By the rods, which are more sensitive to dim light and motion, and are more concentrated in the periphery of the retina
108
What do cones require?
Abundant light and a responsible for colour vision and high acuity vision, and hence are more concentrated in the fovea
109
What does color vision depend on?
The presence of three different types of cones
◦ One specialized to absorb blue light, one absorbs green light, and one absorbs red light
110
What does emmetropia mean?
Describes normal visual
111
What causes in visual defects?
too much or too little curvature of the cornea or the lens
112
What does myopia mean?
Nearsightedness
113
How is myopia corrected?
By a concave ((divergent) lens, which will cause the light raised to divert slightly before they reach the cornea
114
What does hyperopia mean?
Farsightedness
115
What results from the focussing of light behind the retina?
Hyperopia
116
How is hyperopia corrected?
With a convex (converging)) lens which causes light raised to converge before reaching the cornea
117
What does presbyopia mean?
An inability to accommodate (focus)
118
How does presbyopia occur?
It results from the loss of flexibility of the lens, which occurs with ageing
◦ old age eyes
119
Describe myopia
◦ Nearsightedness
◦ too much refraction at the lens or an abnormally long eyeball result in a focal length that is too short (meaning the incoming light raise crossover each each other before they hit the retina)
120
Describe hyperopia
◦ Farsightedness
◦ two little refraction of the lens or an abnormally short eyeball result in a focal length that is too long (meaning the incoming light raise do not have enough time or length to converge prior to hitting the retina)
121
What is the area where axons exit the eye called?
The optic disc, which is a blind spot because there are no receptors in this spot
122
Where is the optic chiasm found?
At the point where the optic nerves unite
123
What occurs at the optic chiasm?
Fibre is carrying information from the nasal half of each retina (the half of each retina near to the nose) crossover to the opposite side of the brain
◦ information from the temporal part of each eye (the half of each retina further from the nose does not cross over at the optic chiasm - thus the left side of the brain receives all information about the right visual field of the eye, and the right side of the brain, receives all information about the left visual field of the eye
124
What are the optical axons after the optical chiasm called?
The optic tract
125
What does the optic tract do?
It wraps around the midbrain to get to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus
◦ the majority of the visual information flows through the LGN into the optic radiations terminating in an occipital lope, which contains the primary visual cortex
126
What does each side of the brain have?
It's a neural visual pathway, consisting of the optic track, LGN body, optic radiation, and occipital lobe
◦ each of these pathways contain neural information from both eyes
127
What would happen if the right optic track were destroyed?
A person with partial vision in both eyes, the right nasal and the left temporal fields of vision
◦ In such a case, neither I would be able to perceive the left field division
128
For vision, what is the:
◦ receptor
◦ receptor type
◦ organ
◦ stimulus
◦ Receptor: rods and cones
◦ Receptor type: electromagnetic
◦ Organ: retina
◦ Stimulus: light
129
For hearing, what is the:
◦ Receptor
◦ Receptor type
◦ Organ
◦ Stimulus
◦ Receptor: auditory hair cells
◦ Receptor type: Mechanoreceptor
◦ Organ: organ of Corti
◦ Stimulus: vibration
130
For olfaction, what is the:
◦ Receptor
◦ Receptor type
◦ Organ
◦ Stimulus
◦ Receptor: olfactory nerve endings
◦ Receptor type: chemoreceptor
◦ Organ: individual neurons
◦ Stimulus: airborne chemicals
131
For taste, what is the:
◦ Receptor
◦ Receptor type
◦ Organ
◦ Stimulus
◦ Receptor: taste cells
◦ Receptor type: chemoreceptor
◦ Organ: Tastebud
◦ Stimulus: food chemicals
132
For touch, what are the:
◦ Receptors
◦ Receptor types
◦ Organ
◦ Stimulus
◦ Receptors: Pacinian corpuscules Corrales, free nerve endings, temperature receptors
◦ Receptor types: mecanoreceptors, nociceptors, thermoreceptors
◦ Organ: skin
◦ Stimulus: pressure, pain, temperature
133
For interoception, what are the:
◦ Receptor
◦ Receptor type
◦ Organ
◦ Stimulus
◦ Receptor: aortic arch baroreceptors, pH receptors
◦ Receptor type: baroreceptor, chemoreceptor
◦ Organ: aortic arch, aortic arch/medulla oblongata
◦ Stimulus: blood pressure, pH
134
Where do neurons fire in response to very specific visual information?
In the visual cortex, in a response to particular visual features, such as lines, edges, angles, and movement
135
What is featured – detection theory
Explains why a certain area of the brain is activated when looking at a face, a different area is activated when looking at the letters on a page, etc.
136
What does our brain employ in order to process vast amount of visual information quickly and effectively?
Parallel processing
137
What is parallel processing?
With many aspects of visual stimulus (such as a form, motion, color, and depth) are processed simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or cereal, fashion
◦ pillow processing is also employed for all other stimuli as well
138
What does depth perception mean?
It describes the ability to see objects in three dimensions, despite the fact that images are imposed on the retina and only 2D
◦ it allows us to judge distance, often times with great accuracy
◦ experiments prove it to be largely innate
139
What are binocular cues?
Are depth cues that depend on information received from both eyes and are most important for perceiving depth when objects are close to us in individual field
140
What information do we get from binocular cues?
the ability to perceive depth
141
What are monocular cues?
Depth cues that depend on information that is available to either I am alone and are important for judging distances of object objects that are far from us since the retinal disparity is only slight
142
What is retinal disparity?
A binocular queue, where, by the brain compares the images projected onto the two retina in order to perceive distance
◦ the greater, the difference or disparity between the two images on each retina, the shorter the distance to the observer
◦ Further images have less disparity (the image is from each retina or more similar, indicating to your brain that the object is farther away), while the images closer have more disparity, indicating to your brain that they are closer to your face
143
Define convergence
Binocular cue that describes the extent to which the eyes turned inward when looking at an object
◦ the greater, the angle of convergence or inward strain, the closer the object
144
Since we cannot rely on binocular cues for objects of far distances, we rely on any combination of the following monocular clues:
◦ Relative size
◦ Interposition
◦ Relative clarity
◦ Texture gradient
◦ Relative height
◦ Relative motion
◦ Linear perspective
◦ Light and shadow
145
Describe the monocular cue of relative size
If objects are assumed to be the same size, the one that casts the smaller image on the retina appears more distance
◦ if something is perceived by the retina as smaller, those that are smaller, are perceived as farther away than those that are perceived by retina as larger
146
Describe the monocular cue of interposition
If one object blocks the view of another, we perceive it as being closer to us
147
Describe the monocular cue of relative clarity
We perceive hazy objects as being more distant than sharp, clear objects
148
Describe the monocular cue of texture gradient
Change from a coarse, distant texture to a fine, indistinct texture indicates increasing distance
149
Describe the monocular cue of relative height
We perceive objects that are higher in the visual field as farther away
150
Describe the monocular cue of relative motion
As we move, stable objects appear to move as well
◦ Objects that are near to us, appear to move faster than objects that are further away.
151
Describe the monocular cue of linear perspective
Parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases
◦ the greater the convergence, the greater the perceived distance
152
Describe the monocular cue of light and shadow
Closer objects reflect more light than distant object objects
◦ the dimmer of two identical objects will seem further away
153
What is the minimum stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor 50% of the time and thus detect the sensation
The absolute threshold
154
Define the absolute threshold
The minimum stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor 50% of the time and thus detect the sensation
◦ therefore for each special sense, the 50% recognition point defines the absolute threshold
◦ The absolute threshold can vary with age
◦ The absolute thresholds are important for detecting, the presence or absence of stimuli
155
What is the anatomical reason for why as we age we lose our ability to detect higher pitch sounds?
Because loud sounds can mechanically harm the hair cells, causing them to die
◦ when this happens, the hair cells can no longer send sound signals to our brain, and once they have died, it will never regrow
◦ The hair cells that detect higher frequency sounds are the smallest and most easily damaged and therefore, as people age and more hair cells are damaged and lost, hearing loss occurs.
◦ Since the smallest hair cells are the one most likely lost, loss of sensitivity to high-pitched sounds is common in older people.
156
Define the difference threshold
This is the just notable difference and is the minimum difference between any two sensory stimuli, 50% of the time
◦ it provides the ability to determine the change or difference in stimuli
◦ the magnitude of the initial stimulus influences the difference threshold
157
What is Webber's law?
It dictates that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion in order for the difference is to be perceptible
◦ the exact proportion varies by stimulus
158
What is signal detection theory?
It attempts to predict how, and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus (the signal) amists, all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (the noise)
◦ Four possible outcomes: a hit (the signal was presented, and was detected), a miss (the signal was present, but not detected), a false alarm (the signal was not present, but the person thought it was), and the correct rejection (the signal was not present, and the person did not think it was)
◦ signal detection can have important life or death consequences
159
What are the four possible outcomes for the signal detection theory?
◦ A hit (the signal was present and was detected)
◦ A miss (the signal was present, but not detected)
◦ A false alarm (the signal was not present, but the person thought it was)
◦ A correct rejection (the signal was not present, and the person did not think it was)
160
What does Gestalt mean?
It is the German word for form or shape, and in English means, and organized whole perceived as more than the sum of its individual parts
161
What does Gestalt mean in psychology?
Refers to the idea that the whole exceeds the sum of its parts
◦ when humans perceive, an object, rather than seeing lines, angles, colors, and shadows, they perceive the whole
162
What are the two main Gestalt principles?
1. Emergence
2. Multistability
163
What is the Gestalt principle of emergence?
When attempting to identify object, we first identify its outline, which then allows us to figure out what the object is
◦ only after the whole emerges, do we start to identify the parts that make up the whole
164
What is the Gestalt principle of multistability?
Or multi stable perception, which is the tendency of ambiguous images to pop back-and-forth unstable between two alternative interpretations in our brains
165
What are the five main gestalt laws of grouping?
1. The law proximity
2. The law of continuity
3. The law of closure
4. The law of common fate
5. The law of connectedness
166
What do the gestalt laws of grouping help explain?
How we tend to perceive things
167
What is the law of proximity?
Suggested things that are near each other seem to be grouped together
◦ all nearby objects tend to be perceived as a unit or group
168
What is the law of continuity?
◦ Also known as, the law of good continuation
◦ suggest that we perceive smooth, continuous lines and forms, then disjoined one
169
What is the law of closure?
It predicts that we will perceive things as a complete a logical entity, because her brains will fill in the gaps in the information
170
What is the law of common fate?
It predicts that objects moving in the same direction or moving in synchrony or perceived as a group or unit
171
What is the law of connectedness?
It predicts a thing that are joined or linked or grouped are perceived as connected
172
What is bottom-up processing?
It begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain
◦ also referred to as data–driven processing - information enters the eyes in one direction (the sensory input is the bottom), and is then turned into an identical image by the brain (which the final image is the top)
◦ we tend to use more of a bottom up approach when we have little or no prior experience with a stimulus
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What is top-down processing?
Occurs when the brain applies experience and expectations to interpret sensory information
◦ instead of focussing on the sensory input (or the bottom), we can use our prior experience and knowledge to composer expectations on the stimulus, which tends to occur with stimuli we are more familiar with
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What are two unique components of attention?
◦ Selective attention
◦ divided attention
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Describe selective attention
Is the process by which one input is attended to and the rest are tuned out
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How has selective attention been studied?
Using a dichotic listening, setup where a person wears headphones and listens in each ear to a different dialogue. The individual is instructed to listen to information coming into one ear, which is called the attended channel and ignore input to the other ear, called the unattended channel.
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Differentiate between the attended channel and the unattended channel
◦ The attended channel is the channel to watch someone is paying attention to
◦ The unattended channel is a channel that is being ignored
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What did Donald Broadbent do?
Thought of the brain as a processing system with a limited capacity and thought to map out the steps that went into creating memories from raw sensory data
◦ he created the Brodbent filter model of selective attention
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What is the Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention?
Inputs from the environment first enter a sensory buffer
◦ one of these inputs is then selected and filtered based on physical characteristics of the input (ex. Sensory modality)
◦ this theoretical filter is designed to keep us from becoming overloaded and overwhelmed with information
◦ other sensory information stays in the sensory for briefly, and then quickly decays
◦ at this point in the process, the information is still raw data that has just been filtered. It is not yet been transformed.
◦ It is in the next step, when the information enters short-term memory storage were sent semantic (meaning making) processes occur
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What are the simple steps of the Brodbent Filter Model of Selective Attention?
◦ Both the attended message and unattended message are inputs
◦ Both inputs go to the sensory store
◦ both inputs, then move to the selective filter where the unattended message is blocked at the sensory filter
◦ the attended message goes to higher level processing
◦ the attended message goes to working memory
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What is the cocktail party effect?
When you're not aware of the context of any conversations until you hear the name of someone mentioned
◦ it happens when information of personal importance from previously unattended channels catches our attention
◦ This effect has also been explained to the concept of selective priming
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What is the Anne Treisman's Attenuation Model?
Tried to account for the cocktail party effect
◦ Treisman, believed that rather than a filter, the mind has an attenuator, which works like a volume knob (it "turns down" that unattended sensory input, rather than eliminating it)
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What are the steps to the Treisman Attenuation Model of Selective Attention?
◦ Attended message and unattended message are both inputs into the sensory store
◦ both inputs go to the attenuating filter
◦ there is a bottleneck at which the attended message in the attenuated message both go to the higher level processing
◦ both the attended message and the attenuated message go to working memory
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What is selective priming?
Suggest that people can be selectively primed to observe something, either by encountering it frequently or by having an expectation
◦ if one is prime to observe something, one is more likely to notice it when it occurs
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What is the Spotlight model?
Has been used to explain visual attention
◦ the spotlight is a beam that can shine anywhere within an individual visual field
◦ the shifting of attention requires us to unlock the beam from its current target, move the focus, and lock onto a new target
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What is one problem with visual processing?
The binding problem
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What is the binding problem?
The problem of how all of the different aspects are assembled together in related to a single object, rather than something else in the visual field
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What is the solution to the binding problem?
visual attention - because if visual attention is on a particular object, such as a cup, then the features detected of the shape and colour will all be related to the object being attended to
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What is meant by divided attention?
Concerns when and if we are able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously
◦ it turns out that this depends on the characteristics of the activities one is trying to multitask.
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What is the resource model of attention?
It states that we have limited a pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks, both modality specific resources, and general resources
◦ In general, if the resources required to perform multiple tasks, simultaneously exceeds the available resources to do so, and the tasks cannot be accomplished at the same time
◦ there are three factors associated with performance on multitasking: task, similarity, task, difficulty, and task practice
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What are the three factor factors associated with performance on multitasking?
1. Task similarity
2. Task difficulty
3. Task practice
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Explain the information-processing models
Focus on what happens between the years
◦ they have basic assumptions, assuming the information is taken from the environment and processed through a series of steps, including attention, perception, and storage into memory
◦ along the way, information is systematically transformed
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What did the Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention sought to define?
It sorted better to find short-term memory, in which was renamed working memory
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In Alan Badley's model (Broadbent's Filter Model of Selective Attention), what four components did working memory consist of?
1. A phonological loop
2. A visuospatial sketchpad
3. An episodic buffer
4. A central executive
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What does the phonological loop allow us to do?
It allows us to repeat verbal information to help us remember it
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What does the visuospatial sketchpad allow us to do?
It serves as a similar purpose for visual spatial information ( itallows us to re-pull up the memory of visual information to help us remember it)
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What does the episodic buffer allow us to do?
It is theorized to integrate information from the phonological loop and visual spatial sketchpad with a sense of time, and to interface with long-term memory stores
◦ it is responsible for combining information from a variety of sources into coherent episodes
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What does the central executive allow us to do?
It is the overseer of the entire process, orchestrates the process by shifting dividing attention
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Who is Jean Piaget?
One of the first developmental psychologist who studied cognitive development in children
◦ he argued against the prevailing belief that children are much like miniature adults in their thought, processes and abilities
◦ He thought that the process of cognitive development involved forming schemas
◦ He also believed that, as we encounter new experiences that we assimilate those experiences by conforming them to our existing schemas, or we accommodate by adjusting our schema's to take into account the new experiences
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What are schemas?
Mental frameworks at shape and our shape by our experiences
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What are the four developmental stages included in Piaget's theory?
1. Sensorimotor stage
2. Preoperational stage
3. Concrete operational stage
4. Formal operational stage
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Describe the sensorimotor stage?
◦ The first stage of four in Piaget's theory
◦ from birth to roughly age 2, babies and young infants, experienced the world through their senses and movement, such as looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping
◦ during this time, they learn about object permanence, and they demonstrate strength during anxiety
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What is object permanence?
The understanding that things continue to exist when they are out of sight
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What is stranger anxiety?
Distress when confronted with an unfamiliar person
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Describe the preoperational stage
◦ The second stage of four in Piaget's theory
◦ roughly from ages 2 to 7
◦ during this time children learn that things can be represented through symbol such as words and images
◦ as a company, they are learning during pretend play development of language, but they still lack logical reasoning
◦ they are also egocentric
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What does it mean to be egocentric?
It means that someone does not understand that others have different perspectives
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Describe the concrete operational stage
◦ The third stage of four of Piaget's theory
◦ occurs roughly from age 7 to 11
◦ children learn to think logically about concrete events, which helps them learn the principle of conservation
◦ they also grasp mathematical concepts during this time
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What is the principle of conservation?
The idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape
◦ ie. If a water from a white bowl is poured into a thin cylinder, it still has the same volume, despite the difference in height.
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Describe the formal operational stage
◦ The fourth stage of four stages in Piaget's theory
◦ roughly from age 12 through adulthood
◦ people learn abstract reasoning (ex. hypothesizing) and moral reasoning
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What cognitive changes happen during early and middle adulthood?
None – most cognitive abilities, remain stable or increase
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What cognitive changes happen beyond the age of 60?
The following cognitive declines:
◦ some memory declines in a recall, although recognition abilites remain intact
◦ time based tasks can be challenging
◦ slower, information, processing abilities (slower reaction times and speech)
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Differentiate between recall and recognition
◦ Recall: involves retrieving information from memory without any clues
◦ Recognition: involves retrieving information from memory with clues
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What factors have an impact on cognitive development?
◦ Culture
◦ Heredity
◦ Environment
◦ Biology
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Define agnosia
The inability to recognize objects through sensory mechanisms, despite intact function of the underlying sense itself
◦ often due to damage at the occipitoparietal border
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What are types of problem-solving approaches?
◦ Trial and error
◦ Heuristics
◦ Algorithm
◦ Insight
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Define an algorithm
A step-by-step procedure
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Define heuristics
Mental shortcuts
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Define insight
Wen, we may not be actively thinking about a problem, but we might be struck later in the shower with a sudden flash of inspiration
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What are two cognitive tendencies or barriers to effective problem-solving?
1. Confirmation bias
2. Fixation
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What is confirmation bias?
Tendency to search only for information that confirms our preconceived thinking, rather than information that might not support it
◦ it can prevent you from approaching a problem from multiple perspectives, because you are more likely to view it from one way – your way
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What is fixation?
And inability to see the problem from a fresh perspective
◦ at times fixation results from the existence of a mental set
◦ another type of fixation is functional fixedness
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Differentiate between a mental set and functional fixedness
◦ A mental set: is the tendency to fix it on solutions that worked in the past, though they may not apply to the current situation
◦ functional fixedness: is a tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging (ie. Looking for scissors to open a box when you could use a key)
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Define heuristics
◦ mental shortcuts, that can increase efficiency in decision-making, and although they are helpful most of the time, they can also lead to errors and judgement
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What is it called when you make a decision about something based on the examples that are most available in your mind
The availability heuristic
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What is the representativeness heuristic?
Has more to do with our generalizations about people and events
◦ the statement people who work at the post office are rude based off of one interaction with a worker there because you are generalizing your feelings, but one person to all post office workers
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Differentiate between a representative heuristic and an availability heuristic
◦ A representative heuristic is based moron, generalization (rather than specific examples), whereas the availability heuristic is based on how readily particular examples come to mind
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What is belief bias?
The tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic
◦ We tend to accept conclusions that fit with our beliefs and tend to reject assertions that do not fit with our beliefs
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What is the belief perseverance?
the tendency to cling to beliefs, despite the presence of contrary evidence
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Define overconfidence
And overestimation of the accuracy of knowledge and judgements
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Explain why people can be influenced by how information is framed
For example 1 study found that consumers are more likely to buy meat advertised as 75% lean than that labelled 25% fat
◦ conversely, rather than informing customers that they will be charged a "fee" for using a credit card, a company may choose to offer those who use cash a "discount" to make the same situation more playable
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Define consciousness
As the awareness that we have of ourselves, our internal states and the environment
◦ it is also important for reflection and exerts control by directing our attention
◦ it is always needed to complete novel and complex tasks, however, we may complete practice and simple tasks, such as driving a familiar path, with little conscious awareness
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What are different states of consciousness?
◦ Alertness
◦ Sleep
◦ Dreaming
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When is the ability to be alert impaired?
◦ Injuries
◦ Toxins
◦ a variety of disorders, including narcolepsy, attention, deficit disorder, depression, and chronic boutique syndrome
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What are alertness and arousal controlled by?
Structures within the brainstem, also known as the reticular formation or the reticular activating system (RAS)
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What is a tool you can use to measure psychological processes during sleep?
Polysomnography (PSG)
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What is the function of a polysomnography?
Is a multi model technique to measure physiological processes during sleep
◦ it includes electroencephalogram (EEG – measures of electrical impulses in the brain), electromyogram (EMG – measures of skeletal muscle movements), electrooculogram (EOG – measures of eye movement), and other physiological indicators of sleep
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What are the different types of waves that can be measured in a person's brain?
◦ Alpha waves
◦ Beta waves
◦ Theta waves
◦ Delta waves
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What EEG waves are shown when in a relaxed state?
Alpha waves
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Describe alpha waves
They have low amplitude and high frequencies (8-12 Hz)
◦ These ways are the first indicator that a person is ready to drift off to sleep (the body relaxes, the person feels drowsy close their eyes)
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What kind of waves are present when someone is alert, focus, and has active consciousness
Beta waves
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Describe beta waves
these waves have even higher frequencies (between 12.5 Hz and 30 Hz) then Alpha waves and lower amplitude
◦ they are present during when someone is alert, focus, and has active consciousness
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What are the different stages of sleep?
◦ Stage 1 sleep
◦ Stage 2 sleep
◦ Stage 3 sleep
◦ Stage 4 sleep
◦ REM sleep
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What is stage 1 sleep?
◦ The first stage of non–REM (rapid eye movement) sleep is entered
◦ during the stage, the EEG is dominated by fade of waves
◦ the EOG measure measures slow, rolling eye movements
◦ the EMG measures moderate activity
◦ the person becomes less responsive to stimuli and his fleeting thoughts.
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What does REM mean?
Rapid eye movement
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What are theta waves?
Waves of low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency (3-7 Hz)
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Describe stage 2 sleep
◦ Denoted by a changed two distinct wave patterns on the EEG
◦ a person still has theta of waves, these waves are intermitted with two patterns: K complexes and sleep spindles. These each occur as a single wave amongst the fate of waves.
◦ There is no eye movement
◦ The EMG measures moderate activity.
◦ This stage brings increased relaxation in the body that is characteristic of sleep, such as decreased heart rate, respiration, and temperature.
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What are K-complexes?
Typically has a duration of a half a second and is large and slow
◦ these occur as a single wave amongst the theta waves
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What are sleep spindles?
These are burst of waves
◦ they have a frequency of 12–14 Hz and our moderately intense
◦ the spindles do not last long (only a half to one and a half seconds)
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What happens during stage three and stage four sleep?
A person transitions into slow wave sleep
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Describe stage 3 and stage 4 sleep
A person transitions into slow wave sleep
◦ they are characterized by Delta waves
◦ initially Delta waves are mixed with higher frequency waves, but a stage 3 progresses to stage 4, Delta waves come to dominate
◦ during slow wave sleep, a person continues to show no eye movement and moderate muscle movement. The heart rate and digestion, slow, and growth hormones are secreted.
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What is the final stage of sleep?
REM sleep
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What is REM sleep characterized by?
First of quick eye movements
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Describe REM sleep
Burst of quick eye movements
◦ the EEG measures waves that almost represents the beta waves seen in when individuals are awake, however, the waves in REM sleep are so tooth waves with low intensity and variable frequencies. These waves are more jagged in appearance than beta waves, which are also low intensity, but or high frequency.
◦ It is characterized by low to almost no skeletal muscle movements. Is also called paradoxical sleep.
◦ Although the person physiologically appears to be awake, their muscle movement does not cooperate, as the individual is nearly paralyzed, except for sudden burst or twitches.
◦ REM sleep is generally when dreams occur.
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What is the average length of cycles throughout the night?
90 minutes for a typical adult And include periods of non-REM and REM sleep
◦ we complete multiple sleep cycles per night
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What occurs during normal sleep?
An individual passes through the non–REM sleep stages, then enters into REM sleep, then passes back through the non-REM sleep stages
◦ this can happen in sequence, but is also able to jump between various stages while sleeping
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How do periods of REM sleep very throughout the night?
◦ Periods of REM sleep are shortest early in the night and get longer as the night progresses
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How do periods of deep sleep vary throughout the night?
Stages three and four are longest early in the night and less frequent as the night progresses
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How does the amount of sleep needed for optimal functioning change throughout a lifespan?
◦ Infant spend a much larger fraction of their sleep in REM than adults do (and need much more sleep – young babies spend about 16 out of 24 hours sleeping)
◦ teens need about 9 to 10 hours a night of uninterrupted sleep
◦ as we age we require less than less sleep – it is not uncommon for individuals in their 60s and 70s to sleep about six hours a night
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What occurs with inadequate amounts of sleep?
The body is not able to complete all of the restorative phases needed for muscle repair, memory, consolidation, and the release of various hormones, including those that regulate growth and appetite
◦ when one does not get enough sleep, they wake up less prepared to concentrate, focus, and engage in decision-making
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What is circadian rhythms?
◦ Sometimes you referred to as the biological clock
◦ are the biological waxing and waning of alertness over the 24 hour day
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How does light exposure impact how sleep is regulated?
The exposure of light which stimulates a nerve pathway from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus, which then signals other parts of the brain, which regulate our body temperature and control the production in a release of hormones
◦ the SCN is essential in our eternal clock and helps regulate patterns of neurophysiological activities that affect the entire body
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What organ creates melatonin?
The pineal gland
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What is the process for melatonin to be released?
Darkness causes the SEN to signal the penal gland to start producing and releasing melatonin
◦ as melatonin levels, your eyes, you begin to feel tired
◦ melatonin levels, stay elevated through the night and the light of a new day causes melatonin levels to fall
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What system regulates core body temperature?
The hypothalamus
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When does the average adult experience their lowest core body temperature?
about two hours before waking in the morning
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Describe REM rebound
When you miss REM sleep for one night, which result in an increase in REM sleep later to make up for it
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Different shape between manifest content, and latent content
◦ Manifest content: are symbolic versions of underline latent content
◦ late content or unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express
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What is the activation – synthesis theory?
It suggested dreams or byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep
◦ this theory allows for the possibility that dreams are far from purposeful
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What are types of sleep disorders?
Can first be subdivided into dyssomnias and parasomnias
◦ Types of dyssomnias are: insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnoea
◦ Types of parasomnias are: somnambulism and night terrors
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What are dyssomnias?
Abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep, and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
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What is insomnia?
The most common sleep disorder
◦ is characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep
◦ it is not the occasional inability to fall asleep, but due to anxiety or excitement, but rather is a persistent problem that can stem from chronic stress
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What are common treatments for insomnia?
Sedative such as sleeping pills, but these have a risk of dependency and overdose, and become less effective with time
◦ they also create abnormal sleep cycles that include less time in REM and slow wave stages, which can lead to drowsy carryover
◦ natural alternatives include relaxation before bedtime, avoiding stimulants and exercising in the evening, and sleeping on a regular schedule
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What is narcolepsy?
Those who experience periodic, overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than five minutes
◦ they can occur with out warning at dangerous times
◦ It may be caused by disfunction in the region of the hypothalamus that produces the neurotransmitter hypocretin
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What is a possible treatment for narcolepsy?
Treatment with stimulants
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What is sleep apnea?
A disorder that causes people to intermittently stop breathing during sleep, which result in waking after a minute or so without air
◦ this process can repeat hundreds of times at night, and can deprive sufferers of deep sleep
◦ those with sleep apnoea may not even be aware they have it, although their partners may be, as it can be accompanied by heavy snoring
◦ it is associated with obesity
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Define parasomnias
Abnormal behaviours that occur occurred during sleep and include somnambolism and night terrors
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What is somnambulism?
Sleepwalking
◦ tends to occur during slow wave sleep (stage three), usually during the first third of the night
◦ there may be genetic predisposition for sleepwalking and sleep talking
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What are night terrors?
Usually occurred during stage three
◦ A personal experience in a night terror may sit up or walk around, babble, and appeared terrified, although none of this is recall in the next morning
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Who is most likely to experience night terrors and somnambulism?
Children
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When do nightmares usually occur?
During REM sleep towards morning
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Define hypnotism
A social interaction in which a hypnotist has a subject. Focus attention on what is being said, relax, and feel tired "let go" and accept suggestions easily feel the use of vivid imagination.
◦ It can promote recall of some long-term memories by putting someone in a relaxed state, but a patient is also susceptible to constructing false memories.
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How does hypnosis work?
It works not by preventing sensory input, but by blocking attention to those sensory inputs
◦ their two theories for how it works: the dissociative theory in the social influence theory
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What is the dissociation theory?
Is regarding hypnosis
◦ suggest that hypnosis hypnotism is an extreme form of consciousness and maybe an extended form of the normal dissociation where the individual is on auto pilot and the hypnotist takes over the executive control, which directs action
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What is the social influence theory?
Is regarding hypnotism
◦ suggest that people do and report what's expected of them
◦ they are not consciously faking it, but are likely actors who get caught up in their roles in this behave in ways that fit them
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What is meditation?
It refers to a variety of techniques, and involve the training of attention
◦ an individual may focus intensely on one objective attention, such as their breathing, or they may brought in their attention and be aware of multiple stimuli
◦ it has been successfully used to manage pain, stress, and anxiety disorders
◦ Meditators have increased alpha and theta waves while they are meditating, with more experience meditator showing greater improvements
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What is mindfulness–based stress reduction?
MBSR is a protocol commonly used in medical studying to help alleviate stress
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What are the three main categories of psychoactive drugs?
1. Depressants
2. Stimulants
3. Hallucinogenics
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How do all of the main categories of psychoactive drugs work?
They all work by altering actions at the neuron synapses, either enhancing, dampening, or mimicking, the activity of the brains neural neurotransmitters
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What are depressants?
Include alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opioids
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How do depressants work?
They were by depressing or slowing down, neural activity
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Which area of the brain is impacted when large doses of alcohol can lead to deterioration in skilled motor performance?
The cerebellum, which is responsible for smoothing out motor commands from the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe
◦ the cerebellum, controls precision, timing, coordination, and plays a role in muscle memory
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What effect does alcohol have on sleep?
Alcohol suppresses REM sleep, which may contribute to the loss of short-term memory and less restful sleep the night of drinking
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How does alcohol work?
By stimulating GABA and dopamine systems
◦ GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter and is associated with reducing anxiety, while opening leads to the feeling of minor euphoria
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What can prolonged and excessive alcohol use have on the brain?
It shrink the brain
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What effects do both alcohol and barbiturates have on the sympathetic nervous system?
They both depress the sympathetic nervous system
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What are barbiturates often prescribed as?
Sleep aids
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What function to opiates have?
Their derivatives of opium which include morphine and heroin, they also depressed, neural functioning and template, temporarily reduce pain by milking the brain's own pain or levers, neurotransmitters known as endorphins
◦ pain is replaced with a blissful feeling
◦ prolonged use, can cause the brain to stop producing endorphins, leading to a painful withdrawal from the drug
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What are examples of stimulants?
Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines
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How do stimulants work?
By either increasing the release of neurotransmitters
◦ their overall effect is to speed up the body functions, resulting and increased energy, respiratory rate, heart rate, and pupil dilation
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How does cocaine work?
By causing a "rush", a release of the brain supply of neurotransmitters, including dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
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How does MDMA work?
◦ Also known as ecstasy, it is a stimulant and a mild hallucinogen
◦ It works by triggering the release of dopamine and serotonin, as well as by blocking the absorption of serotonin so that it stays in the synapse longer
◦ it causes emotional elevation, but long-term affects include damage to the serotonin – producing neurons, which results in reduced serotonin levels, which can cause a depressed mood
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How do hallucinogens work?
Also known as psychedelics, distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input, creating hallucinations
◦ These include LSD and marijuana
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What occurs when someone takes LSD?
A user my see vivid images and colours
◦ the experience may peak with a feeling of being separated from one's body or spirit seen. Imagine seeing as if they were reality.
◦ Emotions can vary from euphoria to panic, depending on a person's mood and the context.
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How does marijuana work?
◦ The active ingredient is THC, which affects functioning by stimulating cannabinoid receptors in the brain
◦ it relaxes and disinhibit like alcohol, but also acts as a hallucinogen by amplifying sensory perceptions, including colors, tastes, sounds, and smells
◦ it has been used medically to help with nausea and pain
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What is the defining feature of drug addiction
The compulsion to use a drug repeatedly
◦ Users can have psychological and/or physical dependents on drugs
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Differentiate between a psychological dependence and a physical dependence
◦ A psychological dependent is often associated with the use of a drug in response to painful emotions related to depression, anxiety, trauma. Sometimes this dependants can be stopped by removing the individual from painful situation.
◦ A physical dependence is evidenced by withdrawal. Withdrawal is an uncomfortable and often physically painful experience without the use of a drug and this discomfort is alleviated when the user takes the drug, thus reinforce prolonged drug use
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What does language acquisition mean?
The term is used by psychologist to refer to the weight infants learn to understand their native language
◦ it is the process of language learning in school or that of learning a foreign language
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What is B.F. Skinner's behaviourist model of language acquisition
It suggests the infants are trained in language by operant conditioning
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What did Noam Chomsky suggest regarding language acquisition?
That we all possess in a nature feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during the sensitive developmental ear in early childhood
◦ this idea was later named the universal grammar (UG)
This theory emphasizes the commonality among all human languages
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What is the linguistic relative hypothesis?
It states that not only do language and thought overlap, but cognition and perception are determined by the language one speaks
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What is Broca's area?
◦ Located in the dominant hemisphere (usually left) of the frontal lobe of the brain
◦ It is involved in the complicated process of speech production
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What is Broca's aphasia?
Also means speechlessness
◦ Was discovered when people who had injured this area, lost their ability to speak
◦ people with it (also called expressive aphasia) know what they want to say, but are unable to say it
◦ Any words are limited to simple short words
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What is Wernicke's area?
◦ Located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the dominant hemisphere of the brain (the (for most people)
◦ it is involved in the comprehension of speech and written language
◦ speech protection, retains a natural sounding rhythm and syntax but is completely meaningless - meaning people do not have a problem, producing speech, but incapable of producing intelligible, meaningful language
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What is Wernicke's aphasia?
Also known as as receptive aphasia, occurs when people do not have a problem, producing speech, but are incapable of producing intelligible, meaningful language
◦ people with it usually have great difficulty understanding, speech, and they are often unaware of their mistakes
◦ individuals with it usually have nobody weakness or movement issues because their injury is not near the parts of the body that control movement
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What is conduction aphasia?
Involves poor speech repetition, despite intact, comprehension influence speech
