Lecture 3 (Chapter 4 + 5) Flashcards

Question

Do people over or underestimate how much they have changed?

Answer 1

Across the Big Five Traits… 98% believed they had changed on at least one dimension. Only 64% of participants had actually changed significantly on at least one dimension. People seem to overestimate how much they’ve changed.

Answer 2

Survived severe brain injury (metal rod through skull & brain) – frontal lobe primarily affected. Became more impulsive, indulgent, disrespectful; expressed less restraint and forethought.

Answer 3

Survived multiple brain injuries, 3rd in motorcycle accident – temporal lobes primarily affected. Became less sociable and gregarious; no longer high in thrill-seeking; no changes to agreeableness.

Answer 4

It is definitely possible. For example, trauma has been associated with changes to brain structure & function But the most extreme personality changes result from changes in brain biology caused by injury or disease. personality is considered ‘deep’ psychology', meaning the understanding that personality is hard-wired early on, a function of biology by the time a person becomes an adult - extreme changes don't occur unless there are special circumstances "You can’t turn a sociopath into a saint or crush the ego of a narcissist.”

Answer 5

We primarily see moderate evidence for mean-level change. “Changeability” also varies from person to person... Some people change a lot, others change less, and some not at all. Depends on both individual and situational factors. Rank-order stability is very high. (Changing your position within a group is difficult!) Extreme change is rare!

Answer 6

Roberts & DelVecchio (2000) examined all research on personality change; found that stability increases with age and peaks in the 50s. (people don't become anymore stable after 50) The Victoria Longitudinal Study has found evidence of sign. change in Big 5 traits from 55 to 85. - Change does occur in older life, slight decrease in agreeableness and increase in neuroticism in the late older life

Answer 7

Predictable changes in the manifestations of personality over time, even if the underlying characteristics remain stable. Stability in the underlying trait but change in the outward manifestation of that trait. E.g., Childhood temper tantrums are associated with later career and relationship instability

Answer 8

There is evidence that you can become more extraverted… McCabe & Fleeson (2012) – Intentional goals on a daily basis were strongly associated with state measures of extraversion (10 days). (but no long term change or underlying traits) Crescentini et al. (2018) – Mindfulness-based meditation training (8 weeks) was associated with decreased trait anxiety (as well as increased conscientiousness and cooperativeness). Jackson et al. (2012) – Intervention to increase cognitive ability in older adults (16 weeks) caused a sig. increase in openness to experience (compared to controls). MacLean et al. (2013) – Significant increases in openness after high dose of psilocybin.In participants who had mystical experiences, openness remained higher for over a year.

Answer 9

Research from UBC-Okanagan suggests that psychedelics may reduce antisocial tendencies… - maybe due to the fact that these type of drugs have an impact on serotonin, thus better regulation of aggressive behaviour Thiessen et al. (2018) – Men reporting any experience using either acid or mushrooms (in their lifetime) had reduced likelihood of perpetrating physical violence against their current partner. They also reported better emotion regulation (compared to those with no history of use).

Answer 10

UG students participated in a 16-week intervention in which they were coached to make changes on Big 5 traits as they desired. Found that students tended to increase their agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and extraversion (changed the most for this study sample) if desired. → by setting practical intentions.

Answer 11

Simply having a goal to change one’s personality only weakly predicted change over time. BUT interventions to support personality change were successful in promoting change (average effect size of d = .22). Associations were strongest for extraversion and neuroticism and weakest for agreeableness and openness. In sum, it’s not likely or common, but it’s possible to change volitional but only under interventions of support by others (supervision, monitor your behaviour). Also, change in dark trait is difficult, because it’s hard to be self aware with that, and people may not want to change that. Sustain change is possible and further change is possible as well (change may exceed the influence of intervention).

Answer 12

Specific behaviours, thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, values, and social roles. E.g., As people become more heavily invested in their jobs, they tend to increase in conscientiousness. E.g., Investing in a romantic relationship is associated with increases in emotional stability.

Answer 13

1. Definition: ○ A trait (e.g., extraversion) is associated with specific state manifestations (e.g., talking with others, acting vigorously, showing enthusiasm). ○ The density distribution reflects how frequently these states are experienced or expressed within an individual. 2. Key Insights: ○ Individuals high in a trait (e.g., extraversion) will exhibit a denser distribution of corresponding states (e.g., being talkative or enthusiastic) compared to those low in the trait. ○ Even highly extraverted individuals occasionally exhibit calm or quiet states, but their state density distribution over time skews toward extraverted behaviors.

Answer 14

● Sampo Paunonen was a leading personality researcher who focused on trait theory and the complexities of personality measurement. ● He argued that personality measures should balance between being too broad (like broad traits such as extraversion) and too narrow (like specific behaviors). ● According to Paunonen, there is an ideal level of measurement at the narrow trait or facet level for predicting human behavior most accurately. Key Concept: The Ideal Level of Personality Measurement ● Too Broad: Measures of broad traits like extraversion or neuroticism may lack specificity. ● Too Narrow: Focusing only on single behaviors or actions can miss the broader personality influences. ● Best Level: The narrow traits or facets (e.g., self-discipline within conscientiousness) provide the most accurate predictions of behavior. Caution on Aggregation: ● Paunonen cautioned that while narrow traits provide better predictions, aggregating narrow traits into broad traits can sometimes be counterproductive, as it may reduce the accuracy of predictions related to specific behaviours.

Answer 15

1. Paunonen & Nicol (2001): ○ University students: Narrow traits, such as facets of conscientiousness like self-discipline, were best predictors of behaviors like academic performance and participation in research than broad traits. ○ Example: A facet like self-discipline within conscientiousness was a better predictor of grade point average than broader conscientiousness. 2. Cross-Cultural Research: ○ Narrow traits predicted more variance in specific behaviors, such as substance use (e.g., alcohol and smoking), compared to broad traits. ● Practical Applications: ○ If we want to understand academic success or work-related behaviors, examining specific facets (e.g., achievement motivation) is more useful than relying solely on broad personality traits.

Answer 16

● Carelessness occurs when participants filling out trait questionnaires fail to answer carefully or truthfully. This can happen for various reasons: ○ Lack of motivation (e.g., volunteers completing questionnaires as part of an introductory psychology course). ○ Rushing through the questionnaire and providing random answers. ○ Accidental errors (e.g., failing to fill in a circle on an optical scanning sheet, which can invalidate all subsequent answers). ○ Other factors such as difficulty reading, fatigue, or even hallucinations.

Answer 17

1. Infrequency Scales: ○ These are special items embedded in the questionnaire that almost everyone would answer in the same way. ○ Example items from the Personality Research Form: ■ “I do not believe that wood really burns.” ■ “I make all my own clothes and shoes.” ■ “Whenever I walk up stairs, I always do so on my hands.” ○ Responses to these items: ■ If participants answer more than 1–2 of these items in an unexpected way (e.g., marking “True”), their responses may be flagged as invalid. ■ Such responses indicate carelessness, random answering, or reading/comprehension difficulties. 2. Duplicate Questions: ○ Include identical questions spaced far apart in the questionnaire. ○ If participants provide inconsistent answers to these duplicates, it suggests carelessness or misunderstanding.

Answer 18

● Faking refers to the intentional distortion of answers on questionnaires, often to appear better or worse than one's actual traits. ○ Faking Good: Trying to appear well-adjusted, desirable, or better than reality. ○ Faking Bad: Trying to appear distressed, maladjusted, or worse than reality. Examples of Motivations: 1. Faking Good: ○ Applicants for jobs or programs may try to showcase ideal traits to increase their chances of acceptance. ○ Example: Military cadets applying for pilot training often provided responses that aligned with the "most desirable" traits (Galic, Jerneic, & Kovacic, 2012). 2. Faking Bad: ○ Individuals may exaggerate distress for legal or financial benefits. ○ Example: A worker suing for mental anguish may overstate psychological symptoms to strengthen their case.

Answer 19

1. Faking Profiles: ○ 让一群人fake good or fake bad，然后再用这些刻意的去和participants的答案对比 ○ False negative i. Decide person telling the truth was faking ii. A truthful person may be mistakenly flagged as faking. ○ False positive i. Decide the person was faking but actually telling the truth 2. Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR): ○ Measures social desirability tendencies to statistically adjust scores on questionnaires (Paulhus, 1984, 1990) 3. Forced-Choice Method: ○ Participants choose from lists of both positive and negative descriptors to describe themselves, avoiding inflated responses on desirable traits (Hirsh & Peterson, 2008).

Answer 20

● Barnum's statements are generalities that seem specific and personal but could apply to almost anyone. ○ Commonly found in astrology predictions or vague personality descriptions. ○ Examples: ■ “You sometimes have doubts about whether you are doing the right thing.” ■ “You have a need for others to like or admire you.” ■ “Although you can deal with confrontation, you typically try to avoid it.”

Answer 21

● Personality test interpretations often include Barnum statements, making results feel personally accurate when they are not. ● Example from the text: ○ An author filled out the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) questionnaire randomly. ○ Despite random answers, the interpretations still felt highly relevant from 3 different online interpretation, showcasing the deceptive nature of Barnum statements.

Answer 22

1. Deceptive Personalization: ○ Participants feel that Barnum statements are specific to them, even when they are universally applicable. 2. Free vs. Paid Services: ○ Free online services often provide Barnum-like interpretations that lack rigor or reliability. ○ Reliable services often include quantitative data and comparative analysis, such as: ■ “Your scores on extraversion put you in the top 10% of the population.” ■ Research-backed findings linking traits to career success or life outcomes. 3. Lack of Validity Checks: ○ Free services may not verify whether responses are valid or detect random or careless answers.

Answer 23

● Include quantitative results: Provide a person’s standing on traits relative to others. ● Reference research-based findings: Use statements based on studies that link traits to specific outcomes. ● Conduct validity checks: Detect random or careless responses to ensure accurate interpretations.

Answer 24

1. Matching Job Requirements: ○ Example roles: ■ Police officers: Require emotional stability. ■ Jewelry store associates or money delivery drivers: Require honesty. ■ Other roles may prioritize organizational, social, or multitasking skills. 2. Common Usage: ○ Employers use personality tests to predict performance in specific roles and to select candidates whose traits align with job demands. 3. Popularity in Competitive Environments: ○ As workplaces grow more competitive, personality testing is increasingly used to enhance workforce efficiency.

Answer 25

● Self-Report Measures: ○ Focus on specific traits or dispositions. ● Broad Measures: ○ Examples: ■ Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): Assesses psychopathology or abnormal functioning. ■ California Personality Inventory (CPI): Measures personality characteristics in the normal range. ● Narrow Measures: ○ Target specific traits of interest for a particular job.

Answer 26

1. Personnel Selection: ○ Ensures candidates possess the right traits for the role job. i. Select extrovert people with sales job ii. MMPI to mind people with mental instability 2. Integrity Testing: ○ Identifies candidates with desirable ethical and moral qualities. i. Predict tendency toward theft of absteeism 3. Avoiding Negligent Hiring: ○ Reduces the risk of hiring individuals who may pose harm to the organization or others.

Answer 27

● Integrity tests measure attitudes and behaviors related to workplace honesty and ethics. ● Focus on detecting traits like: ○ Tolerance for theft. ○ Rationalizations that justify dishonest behaviors. ○ Antisocial beliefs and behaviors. ○ Admissions of past theft or wrongdoing.

Answer 28

1. Attitude Measurement: ○ Questions assess beliefs about theft, such as: ■ “Will everyone steal at work if the conditions are right?” ■ “Do you believe you are too honest to steal at work?” ■ “Do you think it is humanly possible for the average person to be completely honest on the job?” 2. Admissions of Past Behavior: ○ Questions about the frequency and extent of theft or other illegal activity in past roles.

Answer 29

● Reliability: ○ High test-retest correlations (around 0.85) (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1998). ● Predictive Validity: ○ Predict supervisors’ ratings of dishonesty. ○ Identify applicants likely to engage in theft or admit to dishonesty. ○ Reduce theft in workplaces: ■ Example: A convenience store chain reduced inventory shrinkage by 50% using integrity tests during hiring.

Answer 30

● A third Reason of Personality Testing: To avoid negligent hiring charges. ○ Employers can be held legally accountable if a hired employee harms others (e.g., assaulting customers or co-workers). ○ Personality testing may provide evidence that the employer took reasonable steps to assess the candidate’s fitness for the workplace. ● Caution: Tests should not be used to discriminate (e.g., based on age or race). ● Goal: Ensure no disparate impacts on specific groups.

Answer 31

● Diverse Legal Challenges: ○ Issues vary case by case, as personality testing is nuanced. ○ Each situation may pose unique legal risks. 1. Right to Privacy ● Privacy Concerns: ○ Job candidates are often unaware of the implications of their test responses. ○ Results can reveal private thoughts, emotions, and potentially sensitive information (e.g., behavioural tendencies, intelligence, or mental health). ● Ethical Standards: ○ Employment settings lack the ethical safeguards present in clinical or research contexts. ○ Breach of privacy could result in legal liability, particularly in Canada. ● Psychological Tests as Medical Exams: ○ Tests like the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) may diagnose mental disorders or impairments. ○ Employers may misuse such tests, even if they claim they don’t disclose mental illnesses. ● Potential Violations: ○ Clinically oriented measures (e.g., MMPI) pose risks of violating privacy. ○ Employers should avoid using these tests for selection purposes. ● Safer Alternatives: ○ Tests focused on normal-range personality traits (e.g., Five-Factor Model) or integrity measures are safer and not equivalent to medical examinations.

Answer 32

● Issue: ○ Personality testing may lead to discriminatory hiring or promotion practices. ○ Candidate behavior or test responses can be perceived as favorable or unfavorable, leading to discrimination based on: ■ Personality ■ Intellectual capacity ■ Mental health ○ Traits associated with minority groups (e.g., women, Indigenous peoples, LGBTQ+ individuals) can exacerbate stigmatization. ○ Screening measures may perpetuate organizational or sector-wide discrimination. ● Notable Case: Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (1989): ○ Ann Hopkins, a senior manager at an accounting firm, was denied partnership. ○ Evaluations criticized her for being "too masculine" (e.g., lacking femininity). ○ Hopkins sued, claiming sex-based discrimination via sexual stereotyping. ○ Supreme Court ruled: ■ Gender stereotyping creates workplace bias and is impermissible. ■ Hopkins was awarded a full partnership with the firm. ○ Key Legal Arguments: ■ Gender stereotyping penalizes women who deviate from cultural expectations. ■ Expert evidence (e.g., APA) supported Hopkins' claims. ■ The case highlights the legal risks of reinforcing stereotypes through personality tests.

Answer 33

● Applies to federally regulated industries in Canada. ● Aim: Improve employment rates for four designated groups: ○ Women ○ Individuals with disabilities ○ Indigenous peoples ○ Visible minorities ● Mandates: ○ Remove employment barriers (e.g., physical or systemic). ○ Psychological testing should not disadvantage designated groups. ● Implication: ○ Employers must carefully administer tests to avoid discrimination against vulnerable groups

Answer 34

Study Overview: ● Examined ~600 applicants at a large oil refinery in Western Canada. ● Assessed hiring rates and personality traits using the Five-Factor Model (FFM): ○ Broad traits: Extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness. ○ Facet-level traits: Narrower traits within the broad categories (e.g., dominance, industriousness). Key Findings: 1. Broad Trait Level: ○ No significant differences between male and female applicants' scores. ○ Reflects previous FFM research. 2. Facet-Level Traits: ○ Gender differences observed: ■ Women scored higher on communion (need for social belonging). ■ Men scored higher on agency (need for autonomy). ○ Preferences reflect workplace stereotypes about desired male and female traits. 3. Employer Awareness: ○ Bias surfaced when employers were informed of specific facet-level traits: ■ Awareness of low agency in women favored male hires. ■ Awareness of low communion in men favored female hires. ○ No differential selection when only broad FFM scores were reported. - Canadian Human RIght Act also included to prohibit discrimination of rae, national orignion, etc.

Answer 35

● Definition: ○ Employment practice disadvantages a protected group. ○ Courts assess disparity using statistical significance to determine if the impact is too large to occur by chance. ● Legal Process: ○ If adverse impact is established: ■ The burden shifts to the employer to prove the selection practice is job-related and aligns with business necessity. ○ If the test is job-related and consistent with occupational requirements, most courts drop the claim. ● Relatively Few Cases: ○ Personality tests in North America rarely disadvantage protected groups. ○ Integrity Tests: ■ Show strong evidence of predicting theft and counterproductive behavior. ■ Publishers often provide statistical evidence supporting job relevance. ○ In some cases, organizations may need to conduct their own validity studies.

Answer 36

● Prohibited by the Canadian Human Rights Act: ○ Employers cannot use different norms or cutoffs for different groups (e.g., higher thresholds for women than men). ● Examples of Race/Gender Norming: ○ Some tests (e.g., Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - MBTI) recommend different scoring practices based on demographic factors. ○ These practices involve creating norms from large samples but are considered discriminatory when applied to employment settings. ● Best Practices: ○ Avoid tests that use race or gender norming. ○ Use personality tests with standard norms applied equally to all applicants.

Answer 37

● Context: ○ Personality tests are widely used to screen candidates for critical roles like police officers (e.g., Royal Canadian Mounted Police - RCMP). ○ Purpose: Avoid giving power to unsuitable individuals. ● Example of Test: MMPI II (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory): ○ Commonly used test with 550 items. ○ Primary use: Identify psychological issues and screen out candidates with elevated scores linked to mental or emotional difficulties. ● Research on Police Officer Performance: ○ Hargrave & Hiatt (1989): ■ Examined the California Personality Inventory (CPI) and its relation to police officer performance. ■ Findings: ■ 13% of cadets in training were labeled "unsuitable" by instructors. ■ These cadets scored differently on nine CPI scales, such as conformity and social presence. ■ A study of 45 problematic officers revealed that CPI could distinguish them from peers with no issues. ○ RCPM place greater emphasis on conscientiousness.

Answer 38

The 16 personality factor questionnaire. ● Key Traits for Police Officers (Krug, 1981): ○ Boldness and self-confidence. ○ High need for adventure and influence. ○ Low need for support, reflecting self-assurance. ○ Profile described as "masculine" or instrumental but equally applicable to men and women in North American samples.

Answer 39

● Used by RCMP as part of a selection battery (includes a polygraph). ● Developed by psychologists at Western University (Jackson et al., 2000). ● Measures: ○ Standard traits: Extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience. ○ Independence: Autonomy and self-reliance. ○ Conscientiousness: Divided into: ■ Industriousness: Diligence, persistence, commitment to work. ■ Methodicalness: Order, precision, deliberation. ○ Emotional stability traits included under agreeableness. ● Validity: ○ Six-factor structure is considered more predictive of occupational success than the Big Five model. ○ Particularly effective in predicting work performance for police roles.

Answer 40

1. Theoretical Basis: ○ Based on Jung's theory of "psychological types," which is not widely supported by psychologists. ○ Claims that individuals fit into "types" (e.g., extroverted vs. introverted) are oversimplified. 2. Data Distribution: ○ Personality traits like introversion-extroversion are normally distributed (bell curve) rather than bimodal (distinct "types"). ○ Most individuals fall in the middle range (neither purely introverted nor extroverted). ○ Hypothetical data would be like this: introverted和extraverted分别有个bell-shaped curve - reality data is introversion-extraversion是一个整的bell-shaped curve

Answer 41

1. Cutoff Scores: ○ MBTI uses the median score to classify individuals (e.g., introvert vs. extrovert). ○ Problem: Many scores cluster around the median. ■ Small changes in the cutoff point can drastically reclassify individuals. ■ Example: A person scoring 20 might be labeled introverted in one sample (median = 21) but extroverted in another (median = 19). 2. Unreliable Scores: ○ Retesting often reclassifies individuals: ■ Studies show 50% of participants receive different personality type classifications upon retesting after five weeks. Typological Assumptions: ● Assumes large differences between types and none within types: ○ Example: Extroverts may vary widely in scores, but all are classified the same. ○ Conversely, individuals near the cutoff (e.g., one introvert and one extrovert) may be indistinguishable but are placed in different categories

Answer 42

● Studies fail to provide statistical details for occupational relevance: ○ Gardner and Martinko (1996): Reviewed 13 studies on MBTI in managerial contexts. ■ Found insufficient statistical support for meaningful personality differences. ● No evidence MBTI predicts career choices, job satisfaction, or incremental validity over other measures (Hunsley, Lee, & Wood, 2003).

Answer 43

1. Bjork & Druckman (1991): ○ Found no sufficient research to justify MBTI use in career counseling. 2. Boyle (1995): ○ No strong evidence supporting MBTI utility. 3. Hunsley, Lee, & Wood (2003): ○ MBTI is insufficient as a modern personality measure. 4. Pittenger (2005): ○ Concluded MBTI lacks data to justify its use for employment evaluation. 5. Stein & Swan (2019): ○ Asserted MBTI is inconsistent with psychological knowledge and better suited for educating people about flaws in personality testing.

Answer 44

Personality Coherence: Refers to changes in the manifestations of personality variables over time, even though the underlying characteristics remain stable. An example is how dominance is expressed differently at different ages (e.g., fighting over toys as a child vs. persuading others to follow one's political beliefs as an adult). 人格连贯性: 指人格变量表现随时间的变化，尽管潜在特征保持稳定。例如，支配性在不同年龄的表现不同（如：儿童时期抢玩具，成年后说服他人跟随自己的政治信仰）。

Answer 45

Population Level (人口层面): Observes changes that occur universally from infancy to adulthood, such as increased sexual motivation at puberty or a decrease in impulsivity as people age. Group Differences Level (群体差异层面): Examines how different groups experience changes differently over time, e.g., gender differences in risk-taking during adolescence. Individual Differences Level (个体差异层面): Focuses on predicting individual outcomes based on earlier measures of personality, such as the likelihood of psychological disturbances later in life. 人口层面：观察从婴儿期到成年期普遍发生的变化，如青春期性动机增强或随年龄增长冲动性减少。群体差异层面：研究不同群体随时间变化的经历如何有所不同，例如青春期的性别在冒险行为上的差异。个体差异层面：侧重于根据早期的人格测量预测个体结果，如后期生活中心理干扰的可能性。

Answer 46

Stability of Temperament During Infancy (婴儿期的气质稳定性): Temperament, which emerges early and has a heritable basis, shows moderate stability over the first year of life, with higher stability over shorter intervals. Stability During Childhood (童年期的稳定性): The Block and Block Longitudinal study indicates that early activity levels predict later activity, and early personality measures can forecast adult personality, though predictability wanes over time. Childhood Aggression (童年期侵略行为的稳定性): Aggression shows marked stability from an early age, with substantial rank order stability over the years. 婴儿期的气质稳定性：气质在早期显现并具有遗传基础，第一年内显示出适度的稳定性，短时间间隔内稳定性更高。童年期的稳定性： Block 和 Block 的纵向研究表明，早期的活动水平可以预测后来的活动水平，早期的人格测量可以预测成人人格，尽管预测性随时间减弱。童年期侵略行为的稳定性：从很小的时候开始侵略行为就显示出明显的稳定性，多年来在侵略性上保持相当程度的等级秩序稳定性。

Answer 47

Key Research Findings: Big Five Traits: Neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness show moderate to high levels of rank order stability across various self-report measures and time intervals. Other Personality Dispositions: Traits like self-esteem, self-confidence, prosocial orientation, and interpersonal empathy also exhibit high consistency over time. Increasing Stability with Age: According to meta-analysis, personality consistency tends to increase with age, peaking in people's 50s. 关键研究发现：大五人格特质：神经质、外向性、开放性、宜人性和尽责性在不同的自我报告量表和时间间隔中显示出中到高的等级秩序稳定性。其他人格特质：自尊、自信、亲社会性向和人际同理心等特质也表现出随时间的高度一致性。随年龄增长稳定性增加：据元分析，人格的一致性倾向于随年龄增长而增加，在人们50多岁时达到高峰。

Answer 48

Openness, Extraversion, Neuroticism: These traits tend to decline with age until around 50. Conscientiousness and Agreeableness: Show a gradual increase over time. General Observations: Most people become less emotionally volatile and less neurotic as they mature, reflecting the "maturity principle" of increasing emotional stability and social confidence. 平均水平趋势：开放性、外向性、神经质：这些特质通常随着年龄增长而逐渐下降，直到大约50岁。尽责性和宜人性：随时间逐渐增加。一般观察：大多数人随着成熟变得情绪上不那么波动和不那么神经质，反映了随着年龄增长情绪稳定性和社会自信增加的“成熟原则”。

Answer 49

Changes in Self-Esteem: Males generally experience an increase in self-esteem from adolescence to adulthood, whereas females often see a decrease. For older individuals, declines in self-esteem correlate with increased levels of stress hormone cortisol, particularly among those experiencing psychological distress. Self-Esteem Variability: High variability in self-esteem is linked to increased risk of depression and is a strong predictor of how individuals react to stressful life events. 性格随时间变化的显著发现：自尊的变化：男性从青少年到成年通常自尊会增加，而女性则通常会减少。对于年长的个体，自尊的下降与应激激素皮质醇水平的增加相关，特别是在那些经历心理压力的人中。自尊的变异性：高自尊变异性与抑郁症风险增加相关，并且是强烈预测个体如何应对压力生活事件的指标。

Answer 50

Cohort Effects on Personality: Personality changes over time can reflect the social era and cultural messages absorbed by individuals during their formative years. Example: Assertiveness in women has shown dramatic rises and falls depending on the social norms and values of the cohort in which they were raised. Individualism has been rising globally, affecting traits like narcissism, which are higher in urban and higher socioeconomic groups in China. 群体效应对人格的影响：人格的变化可以反映个体成长期间所吸收的社会时代和文化信息。例子：女性的自信心随着她们成长的群体中的社会规范和价值观的变化而显著升高和降低。全球范围内个人主义在上升，这影响了像自恋这样的特质，在中国的城市和较高社会经济群体中更为普遍。

Answer 51

Volitional Personality Change: Students have shown increases in agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and extraversion when they desired these changes. However, without clinical or experimental intervention, purposeful personality change is generally challenging for most people. 自主性格变化：当学生希望改变时，他们在宜人性、尽责性、情绪稳定性和外向性上有所增加。然而，如果没有临床或实验干预，大多数人进行有目的的性格改变通常是具有挑战性的。

Answer 52

Personality Coherence in Marital and Health Outcomes: Marital Stability: High neuroticism in either spouse predicts marital dissatisfaction and instability. Health and Longevity: High conscientiousness and emotional stability (low neuroticism) are strong predictors of long life and are linked with less grief, less depression, and quicker psychological recovery after losing a spouse. Education and Academic Achievement: High conscientiousness predicts successful academic and occupational achievement, contributing to greater life satisfaction and financial security. 人格连贯性在婚姻和健康结果中的例子：婚姻稳定性：任一配偶的高神经质预测婚姻不满和不稳定。健康与寿命：高尽责性和情绪稳定性（低神经质）是长寿的强有力预测因素，与丧偶后较少的悲伤、抑郁和更快的心理恢复有关。教育和学术成就：高尽责性预测成功的学术和职业成就，有助于更大的生活满意度和财务安全。

Answer 53

Early Conscientiousness and Academic Success: High conscientiousness at age 3 strongly predicts successful academic performance 9 years later. Demonstrates that early displays of diligence, carefulness, and self-discipline are key predictors of long-term academic achievement. 早期尽责性与学术成功： 3岁时高尽责性强烈预测9年后的学术表现成功。显示出早期展现的勤奋、谨慎和自律是长期学术成就的关键预测因素。

Answer 54

Occupational Status and Well-being: Individuals who attain high occupational status by age 26 experience increased happiness, self-confidence, reduced anxiety, and are less self-defeating. Financial success in the workplace leads to feeling less alienated, better handling of stress, and increased levels of social closeness. 职业地位与福祉：到26岁时获得高职业地位的个体体验到更多的幸福感、自信、减少焦虑，并且更不容易自我挫败。职场中的财务成功带来了更少的疏离感、更好的压力处理能力和更高的社会亲密度。

Answer 55

Key Traits for Longevity: The most conducive traits for a long life include high conscientiousness, positive emotionality (extraversion), low hostility, and low neuroticism. Conscientiousness and emotional stability (low neuroticism) are particularly strong predictors of longevity. 有助于长寿的关键特质：有助于长寿的最重要特质包括高尽责性、积极情绪性（外向）、低敌意和低神经质。尽责性和情绪稳定性（低神经质）是特别强有力的长寿预测因素。

Answer 56

Personality Stability in Marriages: Similarity between spouses supports personality stability as couples tend to reinforce each other's attitudes, seek similar external sources of stimulation, and often participate in the same social networks, which helps to maintain consistent personality traits over time. 婚姻中的人格稳定性：配偶之间的相似性支持人格稳定性，因为夫妻往往会相互加强彼此的态度，寻求相似的外部刺激源，并且经常参与同一社交网络，这有助于随时间维持一致的人格特质。