Lecture 7 (Chapter 12 + 14) Flashcards
1
Q
What is field dependence in the context of perception?
A
Some people rely more on external cues (i.e., field dependent), while others focus on details and rely more on their own sensations, not
the perception of the field, to make judgments.
- People who rely more on field dependent tend to focus less on details, and instead focus on broader content
- Have implications on social context
2
Q
Which big 5 traits have the greatest implications for perception?
A
Possibly Openness to Experience:
People high in openness have more flexible and inclusive cognition; more likely to see patterns and connection.
- people with high O tend to think about things in different ways and see things from a different perspective
They also combine visual
information more flexibly –
higher mixed percept during
binocular rivalry
3
Q
What are schemas and what are the main functions of schemas?
A
Definition: Cognitive knowledge structures or mental concepts.
Functions:
- Provide a framework for encoding and integrating new and ambiguous information; informs us of what to expect.
- Affect how we select, interpret, organize, & evaluate
experiences. - Guide attention (details we attend to in the environment)
- Fill in missing details (reconstructive memory)
- Interpret information that verifies our pre-existing beliefs
4
Q
What kind of things do people have schemas for?
A
Social groups (women, Americans, rich)
Parental figures (mom, dad, grandparents)
Relationship partners (boyfriend, wife, partner, ex)
Events (grabbing a coffee, date, weekend, birthday)
Places (school, work, library, home, mall)
Objects (car, t-shirt, toaster, book)
Nature (animals, plants, physical features)
Behaviours (running, laughing, smoking
** we also have schemas for Ourselves – help us to organize our personal experiences and beliefs;
information that is relevant to the self
5
Q
What is the personal construct theory according to Kelly?
A
People have a few constructs (schemas) that they habitually apply when interpreting the world, esp. their social world (Kelly, 1955).
- Reality is constructed through bipolar concepts of the world around us.
e.g., smart—not smart, tall—short, good-bad, young-old, rich-poor, extrovert-introvert, gay-straight - we have a tendency to oversimplify things and rely on those binaries to interpret the world
6
Q
Define confirmatory bias.
A
People are more likely to actively seek out and agree with ideas that are similar to their own, and ignore others.
Also involves negative feelings about different views and opinions.
Usually an unconscious phenomenon.
- leads to belief perseverance: people persist in their beliefs even if they face contradictory information (scientific info)
7
Q
How is confirmation bias problematic in media consumption?
A
The media serve to support existing beliefs; info confirming worldviews is
accepted even if proven false.
- Social media create echo chambers.
- Users see more content from like-minded people.
8
Q
What other studies speak to the challenges of confirmation bias? The role of intelligence?
A
Kahan et al. (2017) – Why does public conflict over societal risks persist in the face of compelling and widely accessible scientific evidence?
Examined the role of numeracy — a measure of the ability and disposition to make use of quantitative information – in making
accurate judgments about scientific data.
- greater likelihood of people high in numeracy to have wrong interpretations in political context
When data were related to a political issue or debate (e.g., gun control in the U.S.), participants’ interpretations of data became more politically polarized the smarter they were.
9
Q
What is locus of control? What is the difference between internal and external locus of control?
A
Describes a person’s perception of responsibility for life events.
Internal locus of control:
A generalized expectancy that
events are under one’s control
and that one is responsible for
outcomes in life.
- people high in conscientiousness display a internal locus of control
External locus of control:
A generalized expectancy that
events are outside of one’s
control; blame luck, chance, or
others for outcomes.
10
Q
What are three factors involved in explaining the causes of events?
A
Internal vs. External:
Do you blame yourself or the
world?
Stable vs. Unstable:
Temporary or consistent over
time?
Global vs. Specific:
Pervasive or applies to this
event only?
Internal, stable, and global styles are associated with depression.
External, unstable, and specific styles are associated with narcissism.
External, temporary, and specific - optimism
11
Q
What are two types of goal orientation?
A
- Mastery (learning) orientation: individuals seek to develop their competence and improve skills and abilities.
- Performance (ego) orientation: Individuals seek to demonstrate their
competence and/or avoid
revealing incompetence.
Mastery orientation is more likely for a fully functioning person. Performance orientation is more likely for a person high in narcissism.
12
Q
What is the 2-dimensional circumplex of goals? (aspiration index)
A
- Intrinsic (driven by needs; inherently satisfying), e.g., community vs. Extrinsic (driven by reward/praise; means to ends), e.g., popularity
- Physical Self (self-enhancement), e.g., physical safety vs. Self-Transcendence (enhancement of others), e.g., spirituality
In combination, describe 11 different goal domains (areas of goal focus).
Aspiration Index
2-Dimensional Circumplex of Goals (Grouzet et al., 2005)
LO
13
Q
For exam purpose, remember the two dimensions of aspiration index.
A
- Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic
- Physical self vs. self-transcendence
14
Q
What is the difference between growth mindset and fixed mindset?
A
Growth Mindset: When students believe they can get smarter, they put in more effort that leads to higher achievement.
versus Fixed Mindset: Believing you won’t grow or change.
15
Q
What is the psychological definition of the self?
A
“The self…is, like all reality …not knowable in its essence. We can describe the various cohesive forms in which the self appears, can demonstrate the several constituents
that make up the self … and explain their genesis and functions. We can do
all that but we will still not know the essence of the self as differentiated from its manifestations.”
Heinz Kohut (1977),
founder of self psychology
- we generally study the self according to its various concepts
16
Q
What is the duality of the self according to William James?
A
- The “I” – Self-Awareness
The self as the agent observing.
Capacity for acute self-awareness; introspection. - The “Me” – Self-Concept
The self as the object being observed.
Descriptive aspect: “I have property X.”
17
Q
When does self-awareness emerge?
A
1.5-2 years, children start to show self-awareness by mirror test
but there are cross-cultural differences in when self-awareness emerges
validity of mirror test may not be so high
18
Q
Is self-awareness observed in other species as well?
A
Animals that have passed the test: humans, chimps, bonobos, orangutans, gorillas, Asian elephants, dolphins, orcas, horses, magpies, crows, ants, cleaner wrasses, some snakes
Adaptations present in highly intelligent species (theory of mind, self-recognition, complex
societies, communication, tool use) lead to an emergent self which seeks to be expressed in more complex ways.
19
Q
What is the definition of self-concept?
A
The descriptive component of the self.
Knowledge and beliefs about oneself as a physical, social, psychological, and moral being.
Personal Characteristics (e.g., tall, smart, extraverted)
Ascribed Identities (e.g., Canadian, young adult, sibling)
Social and Group Identities (e.g., atheist, Liberal, student)
Interests/Activities (e.g., painter, interested in psychology)
Material Possessions (e.g., has a large book collection)
Abstract/Existential (e.g., “me,” a person, a human being)
20
Q
What are self-schemas?
A
Building blocks of self-concept
Self-schemas combine and interact to form our self-concept
more abstract qualities about oneself develop in older ages (later adolescence, early adulthood)
21
Q
What are some key self-schemas?
A
Knowledge structures / cognitive representations of self-concept.
Possible Selves: Ideas people have about who they might become.
Ideal Self: What a person wants to be.
Ought Self: What a person believes others want them to be.
Undesired Selves: What a person wants to avoid being. (may be situation specific)
22
Q
What does Charles Cooley suggest about the “Looking Glass” self?
A
The self is socially constructed.
Our sense of self is built upon the life-long experience of seeing ourselves through the eyes of others (i.e., through the “looking glass”).
“Each to each a looking glass, reflects the other that doth pass.”
23
Q
What are self-narratives?
A
Constant evolving sense of who we are
Self-concept is formed by
integrating life experiences
(and self-defining memories) into an
internalized, evolving story
of the self.
Provides a person with
a sense of unity and
purpose
24
Q
What is the definition of social identity?
A
The social component of the self.
The self that we show to others; the part of ourselves that we use to create impressions.
- Continuity: People can count on you to be the same person tomorrow as you were today.
- Contrast: Your social identity differentiates you from others, makes you unique in the eyes of others.
25
Do we have multiple selves?
OBSERVATION: We all have at least 2 selves: our inner, private self (self-concept) and the self we show to others (social identity)
Think about both self-concept and social identity
26
What is the difference between self-concept differentiation and self-complexity?
Self-Concept Differentiation: The tendency to see oneself as
having different traits across different social roles.
↑ differentiation/multiple selves = ↑ # self-concepts/identities across roles.
vs.
Self-Complexity: Reflects the number and diversity of self-aspects developed for meaningful facets of one’s life. (seeing oneself as a multifaceted person, many interests and hobbies), nothing to do with consistency
People high in self-complexity may have many things going on in their lives (e.g., study, work, partner, friends, hobbies so on)
High self-complexity = adaptive
↑ self-complexity = ↑ diverse/numerous aspects of one’s self-concept.
27
Are multiple selves adaptive?
Research on self-concept differentiation has suggested that it is
associated with psychological maladjustment; self-concept consistency appears to be adaptive
Higher differentiation -- depression and low self-esteem
The concept of the self loses its meaning if a person has multiple selves... the essence of self involves integration of
diverse experiences into a unity...
In short, unity is one of the defining features of selfhood and identity.”
– Roy Baumeister
What does this look like in collectivistic cultures?
- Some degree of malleability and adaptability is expected in collectivistic cultures
28
What do multiple selves in collectivistic cultures look like?
Social situations in collectivistic cultures call for a self that is malleable
and context-sensitive
People from Asian cultures have less consistent self-concepts across
roles; consistency less predictive of well-being
People from Asian cultures are just as stable over time within roles;
inconsistency within roles is associated with maladjustment and poor
relationship functioning
in sum, stability matters within roles, e.g., 你在朋友面前一直都是一样的，你在父母面前一直也是一样的就很重要
29
What is self-esteem?
The evaluative component of the self.
Evaluations of self-concept; evaluation (positive vs. negative) of
oneself as a physical, psychological, social, or moral being.
- Both affective and cognitive.
- Either global or specific.
- Measured implicitly or explicitly.
30
What are 6 myths of self-esteem?
1. High self-esteem is correlated with everything positive (being physically attractive, smart, kind, generous, etc.).
- high self-esteem may believe higher evaluations about oneself
2. High self-esteem promotes success in school.
3. High self-esteem promotes success at work / on the job.
4. High self-esteem makes you likeable.
5. Low self-esteem puts a person at greater risk of substance abuse and premature sexual activity.
- the opposite is true
6. Low self-esteem is a precursor to aggression and bullying.
31
What are some illusions about the self?
OBSERVATION: There is often no obvious relationship between
people’s accomplishments/virtues and their self-esteem.
Most of us have a self-serving bias.
But some of us have undeservedly high self-esteem (i.e., “positive illusions”)
32
Are positive illusions adaptive?
Research findings are mixed...
In the short term, positive illusions are associated with:
Positive emotions, well-being, and high self-esteem
Better performance on experimental tasks
In the long term, positive illusions are associated with:
Decreasing levels of well-being and self-esteem
Disengagement from school and increased likelihood of dropping out
Being liked less by one’s peers
Higher levels of aggression
Narcissism
33
Are self-esteem programs a good thing? What are the possible consequences? What do you think?
Research suggests that false self-esteem based on unconditional praise can actually inhibit academic performance.
34
Based on everything you’ve learned until now, what
are some things a person could do to live more authentically?
- Perceive reality efficiently, overcome biases, escape echo chambers.
- Develop an accurate self-concept (practice self-awareness)
- Try to see/present oneself consistently across/within roles and settings
- Avoid extreme positive illusions and narcissistic tendencies
- Strive towards self-actualization (be a fully functioning person)
- Strive to be your ideal self, not your ought self
- Set growth-oriented goals that maximize your potential
35
What is existential anxiety (angst) according to existential psychology?
According to the existentialists, existence in modern society is difficult because the world has no overarching purpose.
The 2 questions you need to answer:
1. Why am I here?
2. What should I be doing?
- Failure to come up with answers to these questions leads to existential anxiety or angst.
36
How can people deal with the angst?
To deal with angst, one can either face these unpleasant
questions with courage and optimism, or...
One can avoid the problems altogether and live in bad faith:
* Quit worrying about what life means.
* Get a good job, buy a nice car, advance your social status, etc.
* Do as you are told by society, convention, your peer group, political propaganda, religious dogma, and/or advertising.
37
How do existential psychologists define authentic existence?
Authenticity (living according to your “true self”)
Living a life that is honest, insightful, and moral.
Achieve meaning and a sense of purpose
- authenticity means acceptance of reality, including the reality that we live in a society alongside other people
- authenticity is not attainable for everyone if it involves violating the rights of others.
38
What is meaning according to psychologists?
Viktor Frankl: the will to meaning
- innate desire to give as much meaning as possible to one's life, to actualize as many values as possible
Nietzsche: the pursuit of happiness
"Joy accompanies, joy does not move."
- doing meaningful things can bring happiness
39
How is authenticity understood today?
It is understood as the unobstructed operation/expression of one’s true self.
- Awareness of strengths/weaknesses, likes/dislikes, motives.
- Unbiased processing of self-relevant information.
- Behaving in accord with one’s values, preferences, and needs.
- Being authentic in close relationships (i.e., sincere, truthful).
Wood et al. (2008) – Being yourself, knowing yourself, and not conforming to others’ expectations.
40
What are some benefits of authenticity?
Authenticity has been associated with...
* High extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional
stability, and openness to experience
* High honesty-humility
* Health and well-being across settings/roles
* Lower stress
* Less negative, more positive emotion
* Self-actualization
allow yourself to die and become reborn into your new self
41
Is authenticity a Western concept?
People from collectivistic cultures (e.g., China, India, Singapore) DO experience feelings of authenticity & inauthenticity.
Feelings of inauthenticity consistently associated with negative emotions.
Authenticity is associated with well-being in Asian cultures, but it is based on feeling like one’s true self within (not across) social roles.
42
Differentiate between personalizing cognition and objectifying cognition.
Personalizing Cognition:
Processing information by relating it to a similar event in your own life. This style of processing information occurs when people interpret a new event in a personally relevant manner. For example, they might see a car accident and start thinking about the time they were in a car accident.
Objectifying Cognition:
Processing information by relating it to objective facts. This style of thinking stands in contrast
to personalizing cognition. 比如看到母亲抱着流血的孩子的照片，想到的是关于人体头部血
管分布的客观事实而不是自己看过的类似经历。
43
What is the definition of cognition and information processing?
Cognition: a general term referring to awareness and thinking, as well as to specific mental acts such as perceiving, interpreting, remembering, believing, and anticipating
Information processing: the transformation of sensory input into mental representations and the manipulation of such representations
44
What are the three levels of cognition that are of interest to personality psychologists?
1. Perception
The process of imposing order on the information our sense organs take in. Even at the level of perception, what we “see” in the world can be quite different from person to person.比如下面这个图很多人可能看到这个立方体是从不同的方向延展的，往左下或者往右上。或者人们对一些ambiguous的东西的解读也不一样。
2. Interpretation
The making sense of, or explaining, various events in the world. Psychoanalysts offer patients interpretations of the psychodynamic causes of their problems. Through many interpretations, patients are gradually led to an understanding of the unconscious source of their problems.
人们怎么样去解释某件事情，比如一个人撞车了，他会解释成路的问题还是自己的问题。
3. Conscious goals
A person’s awareness of what they desire and believe is valuable and worth pursuing.
比如西方文化中，成年就意味着独立和停止依赖家庭，人们就得将这种文化信念转化成个人愿望或目标。
45
How did Herman Witkin study the perceptual differences between field dependence vs. field independence?
Firstly, he first designed an apparatus called the Rod and Frame Test (RFT). 威特金设计的一种装置，用于研究人们判断空间方向时使用的线索。参与者坐在黑暗的房间里，被指示观察一根发光的棒，棒周围有一个发光的方形框架。实验者可以调整棒、框架和参与者椅子的倾斜度。参与者的任务是通过转动刻度盘来调整棒，使棒完全直立。为了准确地做到这一点，参与者必须忽略棒出现的视野中的线索。该测试测量场依赖性-独立性的人格维度 if a participant adjusts the rod so that it is leaning in the direction of the tilted frame, that person is said to be dependent on the visual field. On the other hand, if a participant disregards the external cues and instead uses information from his body in adjusting the rod to upright, he is said to be independent of the field, or field independent; appearing to rely on his own sensations, not the perception of the field, to make the judgment.
随后这个Witkin又设计了一个Embedded Figures Test (EFT), creating a complex figure that contains many simple figures
Field dependent: slow to locate hidden figures, focused on the whole
Field independent: quickly locates hidden figures, focused on the parts
46
Describe the research findings on field dependence vs. independence.
Academic Preferences (学科选择):
Field-Independent: Prefer natural sciences, math, engineering (偏好自然科学、数学、工程).
Field-Dependent: Prefer social sciences, education (偏好社会科学、教育).
Social Interactions (人际交往):
Field-Dependent: Socially oriented, seeks opinions, enjoys closeness (社交取向，寻求意见，喜欢亲密).
Field-Independent: Autonomy, less social, maintains distance (独立自主，较少社交，保持距离).
Work and Study Habits (工作学习习惯):
Field-Independent: Focuses well, quickly comprehends various media (集中注意力，快速理解多种媒体).
Field-Dependent: Sees connections, processes information in chunks (看到联系，块状信息处理).
Expression Recognition & Language Learning (识别表情与学习语言):
Field-Independent: Better at interpreting facial expressions, excels in second language acquisition due to pattern recognition (更擅长解读表情，因模式识别而在第二语言学习上表现出色).
47
Describe Kelly's personal construct theory.
Personal Constructs (个人构念): Beliefs or concepts unique to an individual, used to interpret and predict events, as proposed in Kelly's theory. These constructs help individuals understand their experiences by categorizing observations into binaries like smart-dumb or interesting-boring (比如将观察归纳为聪明-笨或有趣-无聊等二元对立).
Cognitive Schema (认知图式): Mental frameworks that assist in organizing and interpreting incoming information. Personal constructs are a type of cognitive schema that specifically relate to personal interpretations and predictions about life events.
Role in Psychoanalysis (在精神分析中的作用): Psychoanalysis provides systems for explaining psychological issues, suggesting people seek to understand and predict their life events like scientists using constructs (精神分析提供了一种解释心理问题的系统，暗示人们像科学家一样使用构念来理解和预测生活事件).
48
What are some of Kelly's other key ideas?
Fundamental Postulate (基本前提): Reality is constructed, and no single version of reality is privileged over another. This aligns Kelly with postmodernist thought. (现实是建构的，没有哪一种现实观比其他的更有优势，这一观点把凯利归类于后现代主义者。)
Personal Construct Systems (人格构造系统): Individual systems that determine perceptions of the world. Similar systems in different people can lead to similar worldviews and ease of interaction. (每个人的个人构造系统决定了他们如何理解世界。如果两个人的系统类似，他们可能会有相似的世界观，并容易相处。)
Source of Anxiety (焦虑的来源): Anxiety occurs when constructs fail to explain or predict events, particularly when events feel uncontrollable. Too rigid or too flexible constructs can lead to misunderstandings. (焦虑源于个人构造系统无法解释或预测生活事件。构造系统过于僵化或过于开放都可能导致理解失败。)
Examples:
A rigid belief in traditional marriage roles may cause confusion when a spouse behaves contrary to those beliefs. (固执于传统婚姻角色的信念可能在配偶的行为与这些信念相悖时引起困惑。)
Categorizing others strictly as smart or not may hinder understanding of nuances. (将他人严格分类为聪明或不聪明可能会阻碍对细微差别的理解。)
49
Define locus of control and research studies on locus of control (internal/external)
Definition (定义): Locus of control refers to whether individuals attribute responsibility for events in their lives internally (to their own efforts and actions) or externally (to fate, luck, or other external factors).
Impact on Life Domains (对生活领域的影响):
Health (健康): Those with an internal locus believe their health depends on personal actions, often leading to better health outcomes.
Education (教育): Students with an internal locus are more likely to graduate on time and achieve higher academic success.
Mental Health (心理健康): Lower anxiety and depression noted during stressful situations, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
Julian Rotter: Individual expectations of reinforcement and the degree to which the person valued the particular reinforcer also affect learning.
Individuals adjust their behaviors based on their expectations of reinforcements (such as rewards or criticism) in specific situations.人们根据对特定情境下可能获得的增强（如奖励或批评）的期望来调整自己的行为。
Rotter proposed that people have generalized expectancies about reinforcements that persist across different situations, influencing their behaviors and attitudes.比如一个人觉得自己不能做什么去影响外界的事情，那他上大学可能也会觉得成绩是靠运气影响的，而不是他的control。
50
What is Rotter's expectancy model about?
Involves characteristics that individuals bring to each situation, which determine how they expect behaviors to link to reinforcements. For example, if someone expects that being assertive and demanding will lead to a raise, they may act more aggressively.
Due to different expectations of the outcomes for the same behavior, even identical actions (like asking for a raise at work) can result in varied behaviors. These differing expectations might lead one person to be assertive, while another might choose a more passive approach.
Some case studies show that individuals with an internal locus of control may resist situations requiring them to relinquish control, such as using autonomous cars. They may also experience greater stress in social situations like workplace bullying.
51
What is learned helplessness? How is it developed?
Definition (定义): Learned helplessness occurs when individuals, after repeated failures to control or change a negative situation, become passive and accept their circumstances, believing that they have no control.
Discovery in Animals (动物中的发现): Initially studied in dogs, which stopped trying to escape shocks after learning that escape was impossible, showing that they perceived their efforts as futile (最初在狗身上进行研究，当狗意识到逃脱是不可能的后，它们停止尝试逃跑，表明它们认为自己的努力是徒劳的).
In Humans (人类中的表现): Demonstrated using uncontrollable noise as an adverse stimulus, which impaired participants' ability to perform on subsequent problem-solving tasks. This illustrates how perceived uncontrollability leads to a general passivity even in new situations without negative stimuli.
Overcoming Learned Helplessness (克服学习无助): Introducing new perspectives or sources of optimism can provide strategies to escape from learned helplessness, showing that this condition is not permanent if intervention occurs (通过引入新的观点或乐观的信息源，可以提供摆脱学习无助状态的策略，显示如果进行干预，这种状况不是永久的).
52
How is trauma and locus of control related to indigenous peoples of Canada?
Impact of Colonization (殖民的影响): European colonization caused traumatic events for Indigenous peoples, including loss of autonomy and forced assimilation, severely impacting their societal and psychological well-being.
Generational Trauma (代际创伤): Trauma has been transmitted across generations, leading to long-lasting effects such as higher poverty rates and reduced life expectancy.
Learned Helplessness (学习无助): Historical trauma contributed to widespread learned helplessness, characterized by high rates of depression, suicide, and low self-esteem. This stems from a loss of locus of control, affecting Indigenous individuals' motivation for success and achievement.
Transmission of Trauma (创伤的传递): According to Cynthia Wesley-Esquimaux, historical trauma is transmitted to subsequent generations through learned behavioral patterns, altering social behaviors and cognitive styles.
Intervention Suggestions (干预建议): Research suggests that understanding these patterns and implementing culturally sensitive support and interventions can significantly improve health and well-being in Indigenous communities.
53
What are the three aspects of explanatory style that relate to learned helplessness?
1. Internal vs. External
- Internal: Individuals attribute the causes of events to personal factors, such as their own abilities or efforts (个人因素，如能力不足或不够努力).
- External: Causes of events are attributed to outside factors, like others' actions or uncontrollable circumstances (外部因素，如他人行为或不可控环境).
2. Stable vs. Unstable
- Stable: Belief that the causes of events are constant, e.g., a permanent lack of ability (认为事件原因是恒定的，如永久的能力缺陷).
- Unstable: Causes of events are seen as temporary, e.g., a specific mistake (认为事件原因是暂时的，如一次具体的错误).
3. Global vs. Specific
- Global: Causes of events are believed to affect multiple areas of life, e.g., a personal flaw impacts many aspects (认为事件原因影响生活的多个方面，如个人缺陷影响多个生活领域).
- Specific: Belief that the causes are confined to specific situations, e.g., failure in one particular task (认为事件原因仅限于特定情境，如某个具体任务的失败).
54
How do optimistic and pessimistic explanatory styles differ when interpreting a low test score?
Scenario: A person receives a low score on a test.
* Optimistic Explanatory Style:
- External: Attributing the score to factors outside of personal control, such as the test being unusually difficult (外部因素，如考试异常困难).
- Unstable: Viewing the cause as changeable, like being unwell that day (不稳定因素，如当天身体不适).
Specific: Believing that the low score only applies to this particular test and not to others (特定因素，认为低分仅限于这次考试).
* Pessimistic Explanatory Style:
Internal: Believing the low score is due to personal shortcomings, like a lack of intelligence (内部因素，如智力不足).
Stable: Thinking this condition will persist and affect all future performances (稳定因素，认为这种状况将持续并影响未来的所有表现).
Global: Assuming that this flaw will impact many areas of life, not just academic subjects (全局因素，认为这个缺点会影响生活的多个方面).
Implications:
Optimism: Associated with better mental health, higher achievement, and greater resilience (乐观主义与更好的心理健康、更高的成就和更强的适应能力相关).
Pessimism: May lead to stress, depression, and a sense of low accomplishment (悲观主义可能导致压力、抑郁和成就感低下).
55
What does a personal project refer to?
Personal Projects: A set of relevant actions aimed at achieving a selected goal that reflects an individual's personality and how they navigate life. Personal projects are how people manage daily life goals and respond to changing priorities.
Personal Projects Analysis (Developed by Brian Little): A method where participants list their personal projects and rate them on factors like importance, enjoyment, progress, and life impact. This analysis helps in understanding:
- How individual traits influence the management and perception of personal projects.
- Higher levels of neuroticism can make projects seem more stressful and uncontrollable.
- Happiness and Life Satisfaction: These are closely linked to feeling in control of personal projects, experiencing low stress, and maintaining optimism about project outcomes.
- How individuals approach their personal projects can significantly influence their overall happiness and quality of life.
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What is the cognitive social learning theory and its emphasis in personality development?
Cognitive Social Learning Approach (认知社会学习方法): This theory posits that personality is influenced not only through direct reinforcement but also through observational learning and cognitive processes. (这一理论认为，人格不仅通过直接强化形成，还通过观察学习和认知过程形成。)
* Goals Influence Personality (目标影响人格): Personality is expressed in the goals people set and how they perceive themselves in relation to these goals. (人格体现在人们设定的目标以及他们如何看待自己与这些目标的关系中。)
* Cognitive and Social Processes (认知和社会过程): The approach highlights the cognitive processes involved in learning to value certain goals over others, including thinking, planning, and setting goals based on social interactions. (这种方法强调了在学习中重视某些目标超过其他目标的认知过程，包括基于社会互动的思考、规划和设定目标。)
* Learning Mechanisms (学习机制): People learn and adopt behaviors by observing others and evaluating the consequences of those behaviors, influenced by personal and social feedback. (人们通过观察他人和评估这些行为的后果来学习和采纳行为，受个人和社会反馈的影响。)
* Striving for Goals (为目标奋斗): The theory underscores the importance of personal agency in striving for goals, influenced by cognitive evaluations of what is desirable and achievable within a social context. (该理论强调了在社会环境中通过认知评估什么是可取的和可实现的，为目标而努力的个人能动性的重要性。)
57
Who is Albert Bandura and what is his concept of self-efficacy?
* Albert Bandura emphasized that humans are active, reflective, and capable of anticipating future events.
- His cognitive social learning theory emphasizes the self-system in regulating behavior to achieve goals
Self-efficacy is a central concept in Bandura's theory, referring to the belief in one's capabilities to execute actions necessary to achieve specific goals.
- High self-efficacy beliefs lead to greater effort and persistence in tasks, setting higher goals, and more robust engagement with challenges.
- There is a mutual influence between self-efficacy and performance; higher self-efficacy leads to better performance, which in turn boosts self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy can also be boosted by modeling, where observing others successfully performing tasks can increase one's belief in their own abilities
58
Who is Carol Dweck and what is his thoery of mastery orientation about?
Dweck found that students’ implicit beliefs about their intelligence significantly influence their academic engagement.
Those who view intelligence as an unchangeable, fixed trait (entity theory) tend to avoid challenges and give up easily. In contrast, those who see intelligence as malleable and capable of growth (incremental theory) are more likely to embrace challenges and persist in the face of difficulties.
* A fixed mindset is the belief that abilities such as intelligence are static and unchangeable. This mindset correlates with avoidance of challenges and less persistence.
* A growth mindset involves the belief that intelligence and abilities can develop through effort and learning, associated with greater academic motivation and higher achievement.
Research shows that students with a growth mindset are more resilient, put more effort into their studies, and generally achieve higher grades.
- Praising children for their intelligence can reinforce a fixed mindset, suggesting that their successes are due to innate traits. This might limit their willingness to tackle challenging tasks, fearing that failure might reflect poorly on their intelligence.
- Instead, praising effort and strategies (reflective of a growth mindset) encourages children to persist despite challenges and view difficulties as opportunities to improve.
59
What did E. Tory Higgins suggest about the theory of regulatory focus?
Higgins developed a motivational theory that divides goal-directed behaviors into two types: promotion focus and prevention focus.
* Promotion Focus: Involves behaviors aimed at achieving advancement, growth, and accomplishments. It is characterized by eagerness and approach strategies toward achieving desired outcomes.
* Prevention Focus: Revolves around ensuring protection, safety, and the avoidance of negative outcomes. This focus is defined by vigilance and preventive strategies to avoid risks and failures.
- Promotion focus is often correlated with traits like extraversion and behavioral activation, whereas prevention focus is linked to traits such as neuroticism and harm avoidance.
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What idea did Walter Mischel propose? What is the cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS) about?
As a dynamic system influenced by situational contexts. CAPS argues that personality manifests differently depending on cognitive and affective responses to specific situations.
According to Mischel, personality can be described through "if… then…" propositions, which outline how different situations trigger distinct behavioral responses based on past learning and individual differences.
This system suggests that an individual’s behavior is not consistently predictable across all situations but varies significantly with the context. For example, aggression may manifest only in situations that specifically trigger it, such as frustration or perceived threats.
Responses are mediated by a combination of cognitive and affective processes activated by the situation, meaning that the same individual might react differently under different circumstances based on how they perceive and emotionally respond to those situations.
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What is the definition of intelligence and what are two views of intelligence?
* Achievement view of intelligence: Associated with educational attainment—how much knowledge a person has acquired relative to others in their age cohort.
* Aptitude view of intelligence: Considers intelligence less as the product of education and more as an ability to become educated, as the ability or aptitude to learn.
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Compared general intelligence (g-factor) with the other types of intelligences.
- General Intelligence (g-factor):
Spearman introduced the concept of general intelligence, suggesting a single, underlying factor that influences all cognitive abilities.
Tests like the Wechsler Scale for Children and various standardized tests (e.g., SAT, GRE) aim to measure this general cognitive capability alongside specific abilities.
- Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences:
Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single, unitary quality but comprises 7 distinct dimensions, including:
interpersonal intelligence (social skills, ability to communicate and get along with others), intrapersonal intelligence (insight into oneself, one’s emotions and motives), kinesthetic intelligence (the abilities of athletes, dancers, and acrobats), and musical intelligence.
- Emotional and Existential Intelligences:
Emotional intelligence: Proposed by Peter Salovey and Jack Mayer, focuses on the ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions.
Existential intelligence: Involves thinking about and questioning deeper issues such as the meaning of life, often considered part of spiritual or philosophical intelligence
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What are educational applications of intelligence theories?
Different theories of intelligence have led to diverse educational strategies. Schools increasingly incorporate lessons on emotional intelligence and non-cognitive skills like persistence and initiative.
Programs are also developed to enhance specific types of intelligences, acknowledging that students might excel in non-traditional areas like arts or physical education due to varying intelligence types.
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What does intelligence look like in cultural context?
Cultural Context of Intelligence:
Intelligence varies significantly across cultures, which influences what is considered intelligent behavior. For example, in Micronesia, navigational skills are highly valued, unlike in more technologically advanced Western cultures where verbal and mathematical skills are emphasized.
Achievement vs. Aptitude Views: Intelligence is defined differently across cultures, with some focusing on what has been learned (achievement) and others on the capacity to learn and adapt (aptitude).
65
Describe Flynn effect and its implications.
Flynn Effect: Refers to the observed increase in IQ scores around the world over the twentieth century, attributed to various factors such as better education, nutrition, and health care.
Reversal of the Flynn Effect: Recent observations suggest that this trend may be weakening or reversing in some countries, indicating potential shifts in educational, social, or health factors that initially contributed to the increase.
66
What is inspection time? How is it related to intelligence measurement?
Inspection Time: A measure of how quickly a person can discern differences between two stimuli, considered a correlate of general intelligence.比如一个人多快能够区分电脑上两条线哪个更长
Relationship with Cognitive Abilities: Faster inspection times are generally associated with higher IQs and better performance on various cognitive tasks.
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Are intelligence tests fair? What are some broader considerations on this?
Measurement and Bias: There are ongoing debates about the accuracy and cultural fairness of intelligence tests, with concerns that they may favor certain demographic groups.
Intelligence and Society: Discussions about intelligence also touch on issues of heritability, social policy implications, and the potential politicization of intelligence research.
68
What is the mirror test and how is it used to assess self-awareness?
Mirror Recognition Test: Places a mark on a subject's face or head, visible only through a mirror.
Test Indicator: The subject uses the mirror to touch or attempt to remove the mark, indicating self-recognition.
Great Apes: Chimpanzees and orangutans typically identify the mark within 2-3 days of mirror exposure.
Lower Primates: Macaque monkeys do not show spontaneous self-recognition but can learn this skill.
Other Species: Includes all great apes, Asian elephants, dolphins, orcas, crows, one species of magpie, even ants and wrasse fish.
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At what age do children generally start to show self-recognition using a mirror?
General Emergence: Typically around 18 months of age.
Earliest Documented Case: As young as 15 months.
Common by Age: Most children demonstrate self-recognition by 24 months.
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What are the differences in self-recognition among children from various cultures?
Western Children: Show spontaneous self-recognition early.
Kenyan Children: Significant absence of response to the mirror test.
Children from Fiji, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Peru: Less frequent spontaneous self-recognition compared to Canadian and American children.自发自我认知的频率低
Cross-Cultural Validity: Limited, differences do not indicate lack of self-concept or cognitive delays.
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How do parenting and socialization influence self-recognition across cultures?
Parental Behavior: Differences in parental behavior, especially maternal imitation during play（母亲模仿孩子）, influence self-recognition.
Socialization Practices: Cultural differences in socialization practices impact outcomes in mirror recognition tests.
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How is pretend play related to self-recognition?
When do children start using personal pronouns, and why is it significant?
Pretend Play: Only children who pass the mirror test engage in pretend play, like feeding a doll or pretending to drink.
Imagined vs. Real: Requires distinguishing between real and imagined actions.
Personal Pronouns: Begin using 'I', 'me', 'mine' only after developing self-recognition in mirror test.
Significance: Indicates the child's understanding of their own identity.
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At what age do children recognize themselves in group photos, and what does it signify?
How do gender, age, and social comparison play a role in the development of self-concept?
Age: Around 2 years old.
Significance: Marks the beginning of understanding social expectations and the development of self-esteem.
这个时候孩子就开始明白别人对他们的希望，也会知道某些行为是好的，某些是坏的，好事=微笑，坏事=皱眉；自尊的开始
Early Identification: Around ages 2-3, children begin to identify themselves by gender and age.开始称呼自己为男孩或者女孩，也知道别的小孩是男孩还是女孩，会举起手表示自己的年龄，也会开始说我是xxx的姐姐/弟弟
Social Comparison: From age 3 onwards until age 12, self-concept is influenced by talents and skills, with comparisons to peers beginning in school years.
和朋友对比看自己是否更快更聪明更受欢迎等
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What is the private self-concept, and how does it develop in children?
Private Self-Concept: Children realize they can keep secrets and lie, marking the development of a private self where they understand that their thoughts, feelings, and desires are accessible only to themselves.
开始认识到只有他们自己才能了解自己的想法，感受和欲望，除非他们主动说，不然没人能知道
Significance: This development is a complex but crucial part of growing self-awareness and self-management.
75
What is perspective taking, and why is it important in adolescence?
儿童时期的自我概念通常基于外貌和财产等具体特征，青春期开始就abstract一些了，比如喜欢或者不喜欢什么。青春期后期开始形容自己的人际特征，比如“我是个喜怒无常的人”
青春期开始也慢慢培养了换位思考的能力- Perspective Taking: The ability to understand and consider others' viewpoints and how others might see you.
Teen Self-Consciousness: Teenagers often experience heightened self-consciousness, seeing themselves as objects of others' attention, which can manifest as shyness.
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How are shyness and social anxiety related, and what are their impacts on behavior? What are the contributing factors to shyness?
Social Anxiety vs. Shyness: Social anxiety involves discomfort related to social interaction, whereas shyness often includes a desire for interaction but is hindered by anxiety.害羞的人渴望友谊和社交，但是又被自己的不安全感和恐惧束缚（conflicted shyness)。担心自己是否说了正确的话，有没有给人留下好的印象。但害羞的人不一定是内向的人。他们更有可能把评论解读为批评，而不是有益的建议。
Behavioral Effects: Shy individuals may excessively use the internet, play video games a lot, engage in cyberbullying, or experience loneliness. They are also sensitive to perceived criticism.
Root Cause: Fear of negative evaluation by others, impacting confidence in social situations.
Contributors: Parenting style (controlling parents) and genetics also play roles in the development of shyness.
婴儿可能就展现害羞和社交焦虑（genetics），但是也有后天形成的evaluation apprehension（评价忧虑），担心别人认为他们无聊、愚蠢或者幼稚，怕别人对他们做出负面评价。
害羞的人杏仁核amygdala反应性更强，皮质醇反应更高持续时间更长elevated and extended cortisol response; also a hypervigilance/sensitivity for auditory stimuli in the environment
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How is self-concept similar to cognitive mapping?
Self-Concept as Cognitive Structure: Self-concept is a structured knowledge base stored in memory, similar to a cognitive map of a familiar place. 自我概念是一个关于自我的多维知识合集，有很多个方面
Self-Perception Skills: Developing a sense of self involves learning to see oneself from the perspectives of others, a skill that can lead to discomfort but is crucial for social interaction and self-awareness.
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What are self-schemas and how do they function?
Definition: Specific knowledge structures or cognitive representations of the self-concept.自我图式self-schema可以被理解为构建成自我概念self-concept的一个网格
Function: Guide attention to and processing of information that reinforces existing beliefs about oneself (e.g., being warm, loving).
Example: A person with a schema of being friendly will notice and remember acts of kindness they perform.
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What are possible selves and how do they impact behavior?
Definition: Cognitive structures representing the individuals we hope to become (desired selves) or fear becoming (feared selves).
Impact: Influence behavior by motivating actions towards or away from these future selves.可能自我：自己可能成为谁，希望成为谁，害怕成为谁
Example: A student envisioning becoming a scientist may pursue relevant studies more rigorously.
大学期间的未来职业自我可以预测职业行为。退休的老人也可能拥有possible selves，比如更健康/苗条
可能自我就像是我们现在和未来的桥梁，比如我想成为心理咨询师那我可能就会多上一门cnps的选修课，提供了自我在以后某个时间点的工作模型。但是如果榜样不好的时候，比如认为自己可能存在饮酒问题就真的会更有可能遇到饮酒问题
80
What are ideal selves and ought selves, and what emotions do they evoke when not achieved?
Ideal Selves: What individuals themselves aspire to be based on personal desires and goals.
理想自我：个人想要成为的人，建立在自己的愿望和目标之上
Ideal self guides us to focus our attention on achievement and goal accomplishment (promotion focus), achieve goals = pleasure
Ought Selves: What individuals believe others expect them to be, based on social responsibilities.
应有自我：他们对人希望他们成为的人的理解，建立在对他人的责任和承诺之上
Avoid harm and seek safety (prevention focus); achieve goals = relief
Emotional Impact: Not meeting ideal selves leads to sadness; failing ought selves results in guilt.
81
What are self-guides and how do they function?
Definition: Ideal and ought selves that provide standards for organizing information and motivating behavior.
自我指南的激励特性来自情绪，如果一个人的自我概念不符合理想自我，他会感到sad, despondent, and disappointed
如果一个人的自我概念不符合他的应有自我，那么他就会感到guilty, distressed, anxious
Function: Serve as benchmarks to assess and direct one's actions and responses according to personal and social standards.
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What does it mean to live as one's true self, and what are the components of authenticity?
True Self: Living according to one's intrinsic skills, abilities, and interests.
Authenticity Components:
1. Awareness of personal strengths, weaknesses, and motives.
2. Unbiased processing of self-relevant information.
3. Behavior aligned with personal values and needs.
4. Sincerity in close relationships.
Benefits: Linked to higher levels of the Big 5 personality traits, better health, well-being at work, and positive workplace outcomes such as trust and job interview performance.
- being authentic and living according to one's true self = higher levels of extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability, as well as high honesty-humility
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What is self-esteem and how is it formed?
Definition: Self-esteem is a general evaluation of one's self-concept along a good-bad or like-dislike dimension.
Formation: It occurs when children meet or do not meet expected standards or behaviors initially set by parents and later by society.
Internal Standards: Developed over time, these are personal benchmarks that significantly influence self-esteem based on their alignment or misalignment with one's behavior.
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How does self-esteem fluctuate and what influences its changes?
Fluctuations: Self-esteem levels can change from day to day and even hour to hour.
Life Patterns: Typically reaches a low during adolescence, increases through midlife, and is influenced by life events like career achievements or relationships. 自尊心的提高伴随着其他积极的生活时间，亲密关系的发展和事业的成功等
Global Self-Esteem: Reflects a broad, overall evaluation of oneself that varies from very positive to very negative.
比如超重和肥胖儿童的整体自尊心和自我价值感较低
生活中的不同方面的自尊的测量指标是moderately correlated的
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What is the difference between implicit and explicit self-esteem, and what are the consequences of discrepancies between them?
Implicit Self-Esteem: Unconscious, automatic self-evaluations. 通过Self-esteem IAT来测量
Explicit Self-Esteem: Conscious, reflective self-assessments.
Discrepancies: Discrepancies can lead to psychological issues. High explicit but low implicit self-esteem is associated with narcissism and sensitivity to criticism. 自恋的人有脆弱的自我概念并且对威胁自尊的事物过于敏感，对自我形象的担忧更大
Low explicit but high implicit self-esteem can lead to feelings of worthlessness and depression.
还有研究表明遭遇霸凌会使explicit self-esteem下降，但是implicit保持不变
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How do individuals with high and low self-esteem react differently to failure?
失败之后，自尊心低的人更有可能表现不佳，并更早地放弃后续任务。对自尊心高的人来说，失败反馈似乎会激励他们完成后续任务。他们不太可能放弃，更有可能像完成第一项任务一样努力完成第二项任务。
Low Self-Esteem Reactions: More likely to perform poorly and give up sooner on subsequent tasks after failure.
原因可能是任务失败与他们的自我概念一致，所以他们很容易丧失斗志
High Self-Esteem Reactions: Failure motivates them to persist and maintain effort on subsequent tasks.
他们的坚持可能是因为他们觉得失败和他们现有的自我概念不一致，他们可能觉得第一次失败是意外或者错误，所以在第二次尝试时继续努力不放弃。
自尊心高的人关心的是树立成功、prosperous, and thriving的自我形象。而自尊心低的人最关心的是避免失败。
Fear Responses: High self-esteem individuals fear not succeeding, whereas low self-esteem individuals fear failure more acutely.
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How do successes and failures impact self-esteem differently in cognitive tasks?
Trait Self-Esteem: Long-term self-esteem is less impacted by individual successes or failures.
State Self-Esteem: Temporary feelings of self-worth can fluctuate significantly due to successes or failures in specific tasks.
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How does social anxiety affect the interpretation of text messages?
Interpreting Bias: Individuals with high social anxiety tend to interpret text messages more negatively, especially when the message's intent is unclear.
Digital Communication: The ambiguity in digital communication exacerbates this bias.
Gender Differences: men with social anxiety showed more interpreting bias when interpreting messages from women only, while women do not have this opposite gender affects. When it comes to interpreting same-gender peers, men generally have more tolerant of minor missteps, while women are more likely to interpret other women’s messages more negatively.
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What is the relationship between social media use and self-esteem?
Varied Findings: Studies show mixed results—negative, positive, and no correlation between social media use and self-esteem.
Impact of Use: The effect of social media on self-esteem depends on the manner of use, with passive scrolling leading to more frequent social comparisons.
Consequences: Frequent social comparison on social media is linked to lower self-esteem and reduced psychological well-being.
- Using social media habitually to make social comparisons appears to be detrimental to one's self-esteem. One possible mechanism is the fear of missing out (FOMO) that is triggered by upward social comparisons.
90
How do people with high self-esteem cope with negative events?
Positive Self-Evaluation Maintenance: Individuals with high self-esteem maintain a positive view of themselves despite life's ups and downs.
Coping Strategy: They often shift focus to other life areas where they experience success to balance out failures.
Example: If faced with a rejection (e.g., a publisher rejecting an article), a person with high self-esteem might focus on their positive roles and relationships (as a partner, child, student, employee) and the unconditional love from their pet.
自尊也会影响记忆，自尊心低的人会更加频繁的关注和记住与失败相关的负面经历。
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What is self-complexity and how does it affect reactions to failure?
Definition: Self-complexity is the concept of having multiple, distinct aspects or roles within one's self-concept.
Impact on Failure: High self-complexity allows individuals to buffer failures in one aspect by relying on unaffected aspects, thus reducing overall stress impact.
对于自我复杂性高的人来说，任何一个方面的失败（比如一段关系的结束）都会得到缓冲，因为自我的许多其他方面不受该事件的影响。
Low self-complexity might lead to viewing failures as devastating due to a more singular self-definition.
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What is self-concept differentiation自我概念分化 and its psychological implications?
Definition: The tendency to see oneself differently across various social roles. 倾向于认为自己在不同的社会角色中具有不同的特征
在不同社会角色中的自我分化程度越大，抑郁和低自尊就越严重
A more differentiated self-concept reflects psychological fragmentation (碎片化) and lack of a strong sense of self.
In sum, while having a rich/complex self-concept appear adaptive, instability in self-concept across social roles seems to be maladaptive.
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How do cultural differences impact self-concept differentiation?
What is collective self-esteem and its benefits?
Cultural Variance: In individualistic cultures, high self-concept differentiation is often maladaptive due to the emphasis on stability. In collectivist cultures, there is more acceptance of variability in self-concepts across different roles, which is less predictive of psychological well-being.
Definition: Collective self-esteem is the evaluation of oneself as a member of social groups.
Benefits: High collective self-esteem is associated with better psychological well-being, improved health, and fewer chronic conditions.
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How does low self-esteem influence behavior towards risk and feedback?
Risk Avoidance: Individuals with low self-esteem are motivated more by avoiding failure than by achieving success, leading to risk avoidance.
Feedback Avoidance: Research found that low-self esteem participants would only ask for feedback about exam average when they were sure that they were above average. When they thought they were below average, they did not want more feedback, while high self-esteem people did not avoid more feedback after learning they were below average.
95
What is defensive pessimism and its effects?
Low self-esteem display lower perceived ability and lower academic performance.
Defensive pessimism： Strategy in which a person expected to do poorly on a task.
A defensive pessimist controls anxiety by preparing for failure ahead of time; they set low expectation for their performance and often focus on worst-case outcomes (while work as hard as possible). This strategy overcomes anticipatory anxiety and transforms it into motivation, but the downside is that the negativity can annoy others.
96
What is self-handicapping and why do individuals engage in it?
Definition: Deliberately creating obstacles to success to provide excuses for potential failure.
Reasons: People with low self-esteem set up conditions for failure to have an excuse (e.g., lack of study) rather than facing potential judgments of incapacity. Procrastination and test anxiety also contribute to this behavior.
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What are some common myths about self-esteem?
1. High Self-Esteem Equals Positive Characteristics: High self-esteem does not guarantee that others view someone positively; it can sometimes lead to inflated self-views.
2. High Self-Esteem Promotes School Success: Self-esteem does not strongly predict academic success; achievement tends to boost self-esteem, not the other way around.
3. High Self-Esteem Promotes Job Success: Self-rated job performance correlates modestly with self-esteem, but objective assessments often show no significant link.
4. High Self-Esteem Equals Popularity: High self-esteem doesn't necessarily correlate with actual popularity despite self-reports indicating otherwise.
5. Low Self-Esteem Leads to Risky Behaviors: It's a misconception; people with higher self-esteem are more likely to engage in risky behaviors.
6. Only Low Self-Esteem People Are Aggressive: Aggression can also be linked with high self-esteem or narcissism, particularly when their self-view is threatened.
Takeaways: High self-esteem helps with persistence, social confidence and resilience following failure. Low self-esteem is linked to depression more often and sometimes eating disorder. Additionally, real achievements rather than empty praise (participation trophy), are the key to healthy self-esteem development.
98
What are positive illusions, and what are their short-term and long-term effects?
Positive illusions refer to having overly optimistic or inflated views about oneself. Which psychological pattern is quite normal as people often rate themselves better than average, and as slightly better than what other people judge them to be.
However, positive illusion can be problematic if it goes extreme:
In short term, positive illusion has associated with higher psychological well-being and better adjustment to stress.
In long-term, excessive positive illusion can lead numerous negative outcome, unrealistic extractions, increased risky behaviour, poor planning, gambling and financial losses.
Studies also found that positive illusion in long term led to declining self-esteem and disengagement from goals, perhaps is because they can’t live up to their unrealistic expectation.
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What is self-esteem variability, and what are its implications?
Self-esteem variability: An individual difference characteristic referring to how much a person’s self-esteem fluctuates over time (It’s uncorrelated with mean level of self-esteem tho).
High self-esteem variability individual’s self-esteem is pushed and pulled by the events of life much more than other people’s self-esteem.
Four characteristics of people with high self-esteem variability:
1. Highly sensitive to social evaluation.
2. Increased concern about their self-view.
3. Overly reliant on social sources of evaluation.
4. React to evaluation with anger and hostility.
People with high self-esteem variability generally have poorer mental health, their fluctuating self-esteem are more vulnerability to negative life events, and this trait is linked to depression.
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How do real achievements and empty praise affect self-esteem?
Real Achievements: Genuine accomplishments are crucial for healthy self-esteem development, as they provide concrete evidence of competence.
Empty Praise: Can lead to unrealistic self-assessments and does not contribute to long-term self-esteem stability; may actually decrease motivation and performance.
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How does social identity differ from self-concept?
Social Identity: The externally visible aspects of oneself, used to create impressions and inform others about who we are, such as gender and ethnicity.
Self-Concept: A more internalized sense of self that includes private beliefs and feelings, which may not always align with the outward social identity.
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What are the key features of social identity?
Continuity: people can count on you to be the same person tomorrow as you are today. Although people change in various ways, but many important aspects of social identity remain relatively stable over lifetime, such as language, surname, ethnicity.
Contrast: your social identity differentiates you from other people. That is, the combination of characteristic that make up your identity differentiates you from everyone else. For example, there is only you contain characteristics of x, xx and xxx.
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What characterizes the process of identity development?
Identity development involves exploring different roles and social identities, especially during late adolescence and early adulthood.
This exploration can include trying various activities and adopting or rejecting roles to find what feels authentic or adhering to prescribed roles based on tradition or familial expectations.
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What is an identity crisis, and what are its two types? How are identity crises typically resolved?
Identity Crisis: Anxiety and uncertainty that arise when an individual struggles to define or redefine their individuality and social reputation.
Types:
1. Identity Deficit: Occurs when an individual hasn’t formed a solid identity, leading to difficulty in making decisions.
2. Identity Conflict: Arises from the incompatibility between two or more aspects of one's identity, often leading to guilt or remorse.
For example, a person who immigrates to Canada may experience identity conflict between wanting to assimilate into the majority culture and wanting to maintain their ethnic identity.
Resolution involves prioritizing which values are most important and transforming these values into concrete desires and behaviors. This process can be seen in decisions like pursuing a career that aligns with one's deep-seated interests or reconciling conflicting cultural identities.
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Which of the following features of the self is most likely to be adaptive?
positive illusions about the self
defensive pessimism
self-concept differentiation
self-esteem variability
defensive pessimism
Defensive pessimism is a strategy in which a person facing a challenge, such as an upcoming test, expects to do poorly. Psychologist Julie Norem explains that defensive pessimists use their worry in a constructive way, to motivate themselves to work on the thing they are pessimistic about.
