Lecture 4 (Chapter 6 + 8) Flashcards

Question

What is a negative trait we all share in common?

Answer 1

Our propensity for aggression & war: Humans & chimpanzees are the only primates known to engage in lethal aggression/warfare (compared to other primates). Lee et al. (2018) – Humans and chimps have significantly lower expression of a gene (ADRA2C) that inhibits fight-or-flight. Physiologically? Better equipped to run into battle (fight-or-flight less inhibited), which may have evolved relatively recently as a result of intergroup aggression.

Answer 2

1. Environmental triggers of differences 2. Frequency-dependent selection of traits 3. Contingencies among traits 4. Optimal variance over time and space

Answer 3

Individual differences result from environmental differences acting on species-typical psychological mechanisms. E.g., Individual differences in neuroticism may result from differences in stressors/demands in early life environments. E.g., Childhood adversity is correlated with lower agreeableness and higher anger and aggression in adulthood. Through transgenerational epigenetic mechanisms, such traits could be maintained across generations.

Answer 4

Contingencies Among Traits: Individual differences can be significantly influenced by how certain traits interact with others, making some psychological traits more or less adaptive depending on accompanying physical traits or social conditions. Examples: Quick Temper: Being quick-tempered may be advantageous if one is physically big and strong, offering a deterrence effect, but could be disadvantageous if one is small and weak, where it might invite conflict without the means to physically manage it. Extraversion: This trait can be more advantageous for those who are not only outgoing but also strong and physically attractive, enhancing their social presence and influence. Social Dominance: Rising social status can enhance the benefits of social dominance, where traits like narcissism and psychopathy might become more evident and socially tolerated due to increased power and influence. 特质间的相互依赖: 个体差异可以通过某些特质与其他特质的相互作用显著受到影响，这使得某些心理特质根据伴随的物理特质或社会条件变得更加适应或不适应。例子: 急躁脾气：如果一个人身体强壮且体格庞大，急躁脾气可能是有利的，因为它具有威慑效果；但如果一个人身材瘦小且体弱，这种性格可能是不利的，因为它可能引发冲突，而个体无法通过物理方式处理这种冲突。外向性：这一特质对于那些不仅外向，而且身体强壮且外表吸引人的人来说更有优势，增强了他们的社会存在感和影响力。社会支配性：社会地位的提高可以增强社会支配性的好处，如自恋和精神病态特质在增加的权力和影响力下可能变得更加明显和社会容忍。

Answer 5

Frequency-Dependent Selection (频率依赖选择): The reproductive success of a trait within a population depends on its frequency relative to other traits. As a trait becomes more common, it may lose its competitive advantage, often due to a social response that negates its benefits. Example (例子): In a population with a high proportion of cooperative individuals, cheaters may initially thrive as long as they remain rare. However, as cheating becomes more prevalent, it becomes less effective because cooperators start to recognize and counteract cheating behaviors, leading to a reduction in the frequency of cheating. This mechanism also helps explain the persistence of psychopathy in the population; its advantage diminishes as it becomes more common, leading to social countermeasures. 频率依赖选择：一个特质在种群中的繁殖成功取决于其与其他特质的相对频率。随着某一特质变得更普遍，它可能会失去竞争优势，这往往是由于社会反应消减了其优势。例子：在一个合作个体占多数的种群中，作弊者最初可能会蓬勃发展，只要他们保持稀有。然而，随着作弊行为变得更普遍，其效果变得更差，因为合作者开始识别并对抗作弊行为，导致作弊频率下降。这种机制也有助于解释精神病态在人群中的持续存在；随着它变得更常见，其优势减弱，引起社会的对策。

Answer 6

Environmental Influence on Traits (环境对特质的影响): Different levels of a trait may be more or less adaptive depending on environmental conditions, leading to the maintenance of heritable personality differences within a population. Examples (例子): Food Scarcity vs. Abundance (食物稀缺与丰富): During times of food scarcity, risk-taking is favored as it can lead to finding new food sources. In times of abundance, a cautious disposition is favored to avoid unnecessary risks. Disease Outbreak vs. Low Disease Risk (疾病爆发与低疾病风险): During a disease outbreak, low openness to new experiences and contacts may be advantageous to reduce exposure to pathogens. Conversely, during periods of low disease risk, high openness may be favored to facilitate exploration and social interactions. 环境对特质的影响：根据不同的环境条件，一个特质的不同水平可能更加适应或不适应，这导致在种群中保持遗传性人格差异。例子：食物稀缺与丰富：在食物稀缺时期，由于可以找到新的食物来源，因此倾向于冒险。在食物丰富时期，谨慎的态度被看好，以避免不必要的风险。疾病爆发与低疾病风险：在疾病爆发期间，对新经验和接触保持低开放性可能有利于减少病原体的暴露。相反，在疾病风险低的时期，高开放性可能被看好，以促进探索和社交互动。

Answer 7

Nettle (2006) – There is no unconditionally optimal value of the Big 5 traits, so we should expect genetic diversity retained in the population over time. We should be able to identify both benefits and costs associated with the Big 5 personality dimensions… E.g., Neuroticism involves increased vigilance to danger as well as increased stress reactivity. E.g., Extraversion results in higher mating success but also more risks and greater family instability.

Answer 8

7R allele of the DRD4 gene is associated with novelty-seeking; dramatically different rates in different geographical regions. Hypothesized to be favoured by evolutionary selection when people migrate to new environments or inhabit resource-rich environments. Nomadic populations show a higher prevalence of the 7R allele than sedentary populations, which could be caused by selective migration of individuals with those genes, selective favouring of those genes in the new environments, or both.

Answer 9

We have also developed the ability to notice and remember individual differences relevant to solving adaptive problems. The Big 5 may provide important answers to questions such as: * Who is likely to rise in the hierarchy? (extraversion, dominance) * Who is likely to be a good cooperator? (agreeableness) * Who will be reliable and dependable? (conscientiousness) * Who will drain my resources? Monopolize my time? (neuroticism) * Who can I go to for advice? (openness/intellect)

Answer 10

Shy elk and bold magpies (cleaner birds) become partners in the wilderness… Mutualistic interaction is dependent on the personalities of both individuals.

Answer 11

- the proportion of phenotypic variance that is attributable to genotyping variance. Phenotypic variance refers to the observed individual differences, such as in height, weight, or personality. 表型变异指观察到的个体差异。 Genotypic variance refers to individual differences in the total collection of genes possessed by each person. 基因型变异指每个人所拥有的全部基因中的个体差异。 In specific, a heritability of 0.50 means that 50 % of the observed phenotypic variation is attributable to genotypic variation. A heritability of 0.20 means that only 20 percent of the phenotypic variation is attributable to genotypic variation (and in this case environmental component is 1-0.2 = 0.8). These examples illustrate the simplest cases and assume that there is no correlation or interaction between genetic and environmental factors.

Answer 12

误解一：遗传率和个体（Misconception 1: Heritability and Individuals） Heritability cannot be applied to individuals; it does not specify how much of a trait in a single individual is due to genetics. 遗传率不能应用于个体；它不能指明个体中某个特征有多少是由遗传因素决定的。误解二：遗传率的恒定性（Misconception 2: Constancy of Heritability） Heritability is not constant; it varies across different populations and environments. 遗传率不是恒定的；它在不同的群体和环境中会有所不同。误解三：遗传率的精确性（Misconception 3: Precision of Heritability） Heritability is not an absolutely precise statistic; it is affected by measurement error and sample variability. 遗传率不是一个绝对精确的统计量；它受到测量误差和样本变异的影响。

Answer 13

For dominance trait, identical twins are correlated +0.57, whereas fraternal twins are correlated only +0.12. For height, identical wins are correlated +0.93, while fraternal twins are correlation only +0.48. In terms of formula for heritability (Rmz = correlation of identical twins, Rdz = correlation of fraternal twins): Heritability^2 = 2(Rmz - Rdz). Such as for height, 2(.93-0.48) = 0.90. And according to this formula, 90% of height is heritable and 10% is environmental! The basic logic method can be applied to any characteristic: personality traits, religious beliefs, sexual orientation… etc.

Answer 14

相等环境假设的定义（Definition of Equal Environments Assumption） The Equal Environments Assumption assumes that the environments experienced by identical twins are no more similar than those experienced by fraternal twins. 相等环境假设认为，同卵双生子所经历的环境并不比异卵双生子所经历的环境更相似。假设的验证方法（Testing the Assumption） Studies test this by examining twins misdiagnosed as fraternal or identical. Mislabeling allows researchers to see if environmental assumptions hold true by comparing supposed identicals that are actually fraternal and vice versa. 中文：通过研究被错误诊断为异卵或同卵的双胞胎，来测试这一假设。错误的标签使研究人员能够比较那些实际上是异卵但被认为是同卵的双胞胎，反之亦然，从而验证环境假设的真实性。研究发现（Research Findings） Findings from cognitive and personality tests show that the similarity of twins is not significantly influenced by parental beliefs or labeling. Identical twins do not experience more similar environments than fraternal twins, and environmental similarities do not make them more alike in personality. 认知和人格测试的结果显示，双胞胎的相似性不受父母的信念或标签影响。同卵双生子所经历的环境并不比异卵双生子更相似，环境的相似性也不会使他们在人格上更为相似。

Answer 15

Definition: Adoption studies examine the correlation between adopted children and their adoptive parents (who share no genes), and between adopted children and their biological parents. 定义：领养研究检验领养儿童与其养父母之间的相关性（没有遗传关系），以及领养儿童与其生物父母的关系。 Significance: These studies are crucial for separating genetic and environmental influences since any similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families can only be attributed to environmental factors. Conversely, similarities with biological parents who are not part of the child’s environment provide evidence for genetic influences. 重要性：这类研究因为领养儿童和养父母之间没有遗传联系，所以任何相似性都只能归因于环境因素。反之，与不在同一环境中成长的生物父母的相似性则提供了遗传影响的证据。

Answer 16

Strengths: Unlike twin studies, adoption studies do not assume equal environments for different types of siblings, thereby avoiding potential confounds. This makes adoption studies particularly powerful in disentangling the genetic and environmental contributions to traits and behaviors. 优势：与双胞胎研究不同，领养研究不需要假设不同类型的兄弟姐妹有相同的环境，因此避免了潜在的混淆变量。这使得领养研究在解析遗传和环境对特征和行为的贡献时尤为有力。 Challenges and Assumptions: A significant challenge is the assumption of representativeness; adoptive families often differ socioeconomically from the general population, typically being wealthier. It is crucial to control for factors like the cognitive abilities, personality, and education level of adoptive parents, as these can influence outcomes in adopted children. 挑战和假设：一个重要挑战是代表性的假设；领养家庭通常在社会经济状态上与一般人群不同，往往更富裕。控制养父母的认知能力、个性和教育水平等因素至关重要，因为这些可以影响领养儿童的结果。

Answer 17

Extraversion and Neuroticism Heritability Heritability estimates for extraversion are around 0.60 (based on twin correlations of +0.51 for identical twins and +0.21 for fraternal twins) and 0.54 for neuroticism (0.50 identical and 0.23 fraternal). Adoption studies show lower heritability estimates: around 40% for extraversion and 30% for neuroticism, with negligible environmental influences noted. 人格特质外向性和神经质的遗传率分别约为0.60和0.54（同卵双胞胎的相关性分别为+0.51和+0.50，异卵双胞胎为+0.21和+0.23）。领养研究显示这两种特质的遗传率较低：外向性约40%，神经质约30%，环境影响微乎其微。 Activity Level and Other Temperaments Heritability of individual activity level is about 0.40, suggesting genetic differences account for a moderate proportion of variance. Other temperaments, such as emotionality, sociability, persistence, fear, and distractibility, have shown about 50% heritability in a study of 1555 twins from Poland. 个体活动水平的遗传率约为0.40，表明遗传差异对变异有中等程度的解释力。其他气质特质，如情绪性、社交性、持久性、恐惧和易分心，在波兰的1555对双胞胎研究中显示约50%的遗传率。 Psychopathic Personality Traits Traits such as Machiavellianism, coldheartedness, and impulsive nonconformity show moderate to high heritability. Studies, including a large-scale study from Sweden involving more than a million individuals, indicate the heritability of violent crime is roughly 50%. 如马基雅维利主义、冷酷无情和冲动非从性等精神病态人格特质显示出中到高的遗传率。包括瑞典一项涉及超过一百万人的大规模研究表明，暴力犯罪的遗传率约为50%。

Answer 18

Mental Toughness Heritability Heritability of mental toughness is estimated at 54%. It is significantly and positively correlated with all of the Big Five personality traits except for neuroticism, which has a significant negative correlation. The correlations between mental toughness and the Big Five are mainly due to common genetic effects and non-shared environmental effects. 心理韧性的遗传率估计为54%。它与大五人格中的其他特质（除了神经质）显示出显著的正相关，与神经质则是显著的负相关。心理韧性与大五人格之间的相关性主要归因于共同的遗传效应和非共享环境效应。 Attitudes and Preferences Traditionalism has a heritability of 59%, indicating a strong genetic influence on conservative values over modern values. Significant genetic influences on conservative attitudes appear as early as 12 years of age. Other social values show heritabilities of 36% for social enjoyment and 63% for pro-social values. 传统主义的遗传率为59%，显示出对保守价值观相对于现代价值观有强烈的遗传影响。保守态度的遗传影响在儿童早至12岁时就显现出来。其他社会价值观的遗传率为：社会享乐为36%，亲社会价值为63%。 Occupational Preferences Genetic influence is significant in occupational preferences, which correlate with parental social status measures such as education level, occupational status, and income. A full 71% of these correlations were statistically significant for genetic children, compared to only 3% for adopted children, suggesting that the rearing environment has little effect on these preferences. 职业偏好的遗传影响显著，与父母的社会地位（如教育水平、职业地位和收入）相关。这些相关性中有71%在亲生子女中统计上显著，而在领养子女中仅为3%，表明养育环境对这些偏好的影响很小。

Answer 19

Heritability of Religious Involvement Research on the heritability of involvement in religious affairs and belief in God shows extremely low to zero heritability for both adopted and genetic children during their youth. However, heritability of religiousness increases to 44% in adulthood (average age of 33), suggesting that genetic factors play an increasingly significant role in religiousness as individuals mature. 宗教活动参与度和对神的信仰的遗传性研究显示，在青少年时期，无论是领养的还是亲生的孩子，这些特质的遗传性都极低或接近零。然而，成年人（平均年龄33岁）的宗教性遗传率增加到44%，表明随着人们从青少年过渡到成年，遗传因素在宗教性中的作用逐渐增强。 Heritability of Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation's stability over time suggests a potential genetic component. Concordance rates for identical twins are 20% for males and 24% for females. A specific study found that approximately 32% of the tendency toward same-sex sexual activity is attributable to genetic variance. This underlines a moderate degree of heritability, indicating that while genetic factors are significant, they are not the sole determinants of sexual orientation. 性取向随时间的稳定性表明其可能具有遗传成分。同卵双胞胎的一致率男性为20%，女性为24%。一项特定研究发现，同性性行为倾向中约32%可归因于遗传变异。这表明性取向具有中等程度的遗传性，虽然遗传因素重要，但并非性取向的唯一决定因素。

Answer 20

Smoking Habits If one monozygotic (MZ) twin smokes, the likelihood that their twin also smokes is 16 times higher than if the twin did not smoke; for fraternal twins, this likelihood is 7 times. This indicates a strong genetic influence on smoking habits. 如果一个同卵双胞胎有吸烟习惯，其双胞胎也有吸烟习惯的可能性比不吸烟的同卵双胞胎高16倍；对于异卵双胞胎，这一可能性是7倍。这表明吸烟习惯受到强烈的遗传影响。 Alcohol Consumption and Alcoholism The heritability of general alcohol drinking behavior ranges from 0.36 to 0.56, while alcoholism shows even stronger heritability, with most studies reporting heritabilities of 0.50 or greater. In one study, heritability reached 67% for women and 71% for men. There is also a genetic linkage between alcoholism and antisocial behavior. 一般饮酒行为的遗传率在0.36到0.56之间，而酗酒的遗传性更强，大多数研究报告的遗传率为0.50或更高。在一项研究中，女性的遗传率达到了67%，男性为71%。酗酒和反社会行为之间也存在遗传联系。 Marital Satisfaction The propensity to marry has a heritability estimate of 68%. Women’s marital satisfaction shows about 50% heritability. Personality traits such as low aggressiveness, warmth, and optimism in wives significantly contribute to both their own and their husbands' marital satisfaction. Interestingly, husbands' personalities were less predictive of marital satisfaction. 结婚倾向的遗传率为68%。妇女的婚姻满意度大约有50%的遗传性。妻子的性格特征，如低攻击性、温暖和乐观，显著影响她们自己及其丈夫的婚姻满意度。有趣的是，丈夫的性格对婚姻满意度的预测作用较小。

Answer 21

Shared Environmental Influences Definition: Features of the environment that siblings share which could affect their development similarly. Examples: Presence of books in the home, access to a TV or computer, the type of school parents choose for their children. 定义：兄弟姐妹共同分享的环境特征，可能以类似的方式影响他们的发展。例子：家中的书籍数量、是否拥有电视或电脑、父母为子女选择的学校类型。 Non-Shared Environmental Influences Definition: Features of the environment that are experienced differently by each sibling, contributing to their individual differences. Examples: Different parental treatment, each child having their own circle of friends, attending different schools. 定义：兄弟姐妹各自经历的环境特征，这些特征有助于形成他们各自的差异。例子：父母对每个孩子的不同对待、拥有不同的朋友圈、就读于不同的学校。

Answer 22

Personality Correlation among Adopted Siblings Finding: The average correlation for personality variables among adopted siblings who share no genes but share environments is very low, at only 0.05. Implication: This suggests that sharing an environment does not significantly make adopted siblings (who share no genes) similar in personality. 发现：共享环境但不共享基因的领养兄弟姐妹之间的性格变量平均相关性非常低，仅为0.05。含义：这表明共享环境并未显著使得没有血缘关系的领养兄弟姐妹在性格上表现出相似性。 Behavioral Correlation: Smoking and Drinking Finding: Adopted siblings reared together but genetically unrelated show moderate correlation levels in smoking and drinking behaviors, with correlations of 0.41 for girls and 0.46 for boys. Implication: This indicates that shared environmental factors may have a more substantial influence on specific behaviors such as smoking and drinking, compared to broader personality traits. 发现：一起成长但在遗传上无关的领养兄弟姐妹在吸烟和饮酒行为上表现出中等程度的相关性，女孩为0.41，男孩为0.46。含义：这表明共享环境因素可能对特定行为（如吸烟和饮酒）的影响比对更广泛的性格特征更为显著。

Answer 23

Definition: Molecular genetics is an approach used to determine the role of specific genes in personality traits through the association method, which compares trait scores between individuals with and without certain genes. 定义：分子遗传学是一种用来确定特定基因在人格特质中作用的方法。通过关联方法，比较有无特定基因的个体在某一特质上的得分差异。

Answer 24

Role: The DRD4 gene, coding for a dopamine receptor, is frequently studied for its association with the novelty-seeking trait. Individuals with longer repeats of the DRD4 gene (e.g., the 7-repeat allele) show higher levels of novelty-seeking compared to those with shorter repeats. 影响：DRD4基因编码多巴胺受体，经常被研究其与新奇寻求特质的关联。拥有更长重复序列的DRD4基因（例如7重复等位基因）的个体，在新奇寻求方面的表现高于那些较短重复序列的个体。 Men with the 7R allele of the DRD4 gene are more likely to engage in risky behaviors such as financial risk-taking. Additionally, this allele appears more frequently in populations that have a history of migration, suggesting an evolutionary advantage in new or competitive environments. 行为影响：携带DRD4基因7R等位基因的男性更可能参与金融风险等冒险行为。此外，这一等位基因在有迁移历史的人群中出现的频率更高，这表明在新环境或竞争激烈的环境中可能有进化优势。

Answer 25

Definition: Genotype-environment interaction occurs when individuals with different genotypes respond differently to the same environmental conditions. 定义：基因型-环境互动指的是不同基因型的个体对相同环境条件作出不同的反应。 Examples in Personality and Behavior Introverts and Extroverts: Introverts tend to perform well on cognitive tasks in quiet environments but struggle with distractions. In contrast, extroverts may perform adequately in distracting environments but find tasks in quiet settings boring and less stimulating. 内向者与外向者：内向者在安静的环境中进行认知任务时表现良好，但在有干扰的环境中表现不佳。相比之下，外向者在有干扰的环境中可能表现尚可，但在安静的环境中可能因任务乏味而难以集中注意力。 Genetic Vulnerability and Environmental Triggers MAOA and Aggression: Children with low levels of monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) who experienced abuse often developed conduct disorders and aggressive personalities, whereas those with high levels of MAOA were less likely to develop such traits. MAOA与攻击性行为：拥有较低水平的单胺氧化酶A（MAOA）并经历过虐待的儿童通常会发展出行为障碍和攻击性人格，而那些MAOA水平较高的儿童则不太可能发展出这些特征。 5-HTT and Depression: Individuals with two short forms of the 5-HTT gene who were maltreated as children are more likely to develop persistent depression, illustrating a specific genetic sensitivity to environmental stress. 5-HTT与抑郁：拥有两个短型5-HTT基因并在童年时期遭受虐待的个体更可能发展出持续性抑郁，这说明了特定基因对环境压力的敏感性。

Answer 26

Definition: The phenomenon where individuals with different genotypes are exposed to different environments based on their genetic predispositions. 定义：不同基因型的个体因其遗传倾向而暴露于不同环境的现象。 Types of Genotype-Environment Correlation 1. Passive Correlation: Occurs when biological parents provide both the genes and the environment that reinforces those genes. Example: A child from athletic parents grows up surrounded by sports, enhancing athletic traits. 被动相关性：当生物学父母同时提供与遗传特质相协调的基因和环境时发生。例子：运动员父母的孩子在体育环境中成长，增强了运动能力。 2. Reactive Correlation: Genetic traits elicit environmental responses that reinforce those traits. Example: A curious child receives more educational resources due to their inquisitiveness. 反应相关性：遗传特质引起环境的反应，这些反应进一步强化了这些特质。例子：一个好奇的孩子因其求知欲得到更多教育资源。 3. Active Correlation (Niche-Picking): Individuals seek out environments that complement their genetic tendencies. Example: A musically inclined teenager joins a band to nurture their talent. 主动相关性（利基选择）：个体寻找与其遗传倾向相匹配的环境。例子：有音乐天赋的青少年加入乐队以培养其才能。

Answer 27

Positive Correlation: Environment encourages the expression of genetic traits. Example: Adolescents with positive emotionality receive more supportive interactions from their environment. 正相关性：环境鼓励遗传特质的表达。例子：性格积极的青少年从环境中获得更多支持性的互动。 Negative Correlation: Environment attempts to suppress or counteract genetic traits. Example: Parents try to calm highly active children, countering their energetic nature. 负相关性：环境试图抑制或对抗遗传特质。例子：父母试图让非常活跃的孩子平静下来，与其活力的本性相反。

Answer 28

Interaction of Genes and Environment Concept: Modern views emphasize that genes and environments are not independent in determining personality; instead, they interact complexly. 概念：现代观点强调，基因和环境在决定个性时不是独立的；相反，它们之间存在复杂的互动。 Influence of Personality on Environmental Perception Explanation: People's perception of their early environments is heavily influenced by their heritable personality traits. Personality affects how individuals subjectively remember and interpret their childhood experiences. 解释：人们对其早期环境的感知在很大程度上受到其遗传性格特质的影响。性格影响个体如何主观地记忆和解释他们的童年经历。 Example of Perception Bias Specific Case: Individuals who are calm and controlled (low on negative emotionality and high on constraint) might remember their family environments as more cohesive than they actually were. This is due to their tendency to forget or overlook real family conflicts that occurred during their childhood. 具体案例：性格平和且受控制的人（在消极情绪性上得分低，在约束性上得分高）可能会认为他们的家庭环境比实际更有凝聚力。这是因为他们倾向于忘记或忽视童年时期发生的真实家庭冲突。

Answer 29

Definition: Epigenetics studies how environmental experiences can affect the expression of genes without altering the DNA sequence itself—essentially how nurture can shape nature. 定义：表观遗传学研究环境经历如何影响基因的表达，而不改变DNA序列本身——本质上研究养育如何塑造天性。 Mechanisms and Timing Key Point: Epigenetic changes are more likely to occur early in life and involve changes in phenotype, not genotype, implying changes in gene expression rather than changes to the DNA itself. 关键点：表观遗传变化更可能在生命早期发生，涉及表型而非基因型的变化，意味着改变的是基因表达，而不是DNA本身。

Answer 30

Observation: Studies, particularly in animals, have shown that epigenetic changes can be passed from parents to offspring, suggesting a non-genetic form of inheritance. 观察：研究，特别是在动物身上的研究，显示表观遗传变化可以从父母传给后代，表明一种非遗传形式的遗传。 Epigenetics in Human Behavior Examples: Childhood abuse is linked to epigenetic markers in adults with anxiety and depression. A study showed that adults who practiced kindness for four weeks exhibited epigenetic changes that improved their responsiveness to adversity. 人类行为中的例子：童年遭受虐待与成年后焦虑和抑郁患者的表观遗传标记相关。一项研究显示，成年人在连续四周实践善行后，表现出与提高逆境应对能力相关的表观遗传变化。

Answer 31

Darwin’s Key Contribution: Charles Darwin identified natural selection as the mechanism by which adaptations occur, allowing species to evolve over time. 达尔文的主要贡献：查尔斯·达尔文确定自然选择是适应发生的机制，允许物种随时间进化。 Process of Natural Selection: Species produce more offspring than can survive. Variations that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in subsequent generations. Successful traits accumulate in the gene pool, while unsuccessful traits diminish. 自然选择的过程：物种产生的后代数量超过了可以生存的数量。增强生存和繁殖能力的变异在后代中变得更加普遍。成功的特征在基因库中积累，而不成功的特征则减少。

Answer 32

Survival Selection: Natural selection is sometimes referred to as survival selection, focusing on how species adapt to the hostile forces of nature like food shortages, diseases, predators, and extreme weather. Adaptations include: Food preferences evolved to cope with food scarcity. Immune system defenses against diseases and parasites. Innate fears of snakes and spiders to avoid dangers. 生存选择：自然选择有时被称为生存选择，侧重于物种如何适应自然界的敌对力量，如食物短缺、疾病、捕食者和极端天气。适应包括：食物偏好的进化是为了应对食物短缺。免疫系统对抗疾病和寄生虫的防御。天生对蛇和蜘蛛的恐惧有助于避免危险。

Answer 33

Darwin noticed that some traits, such as the peacock’s elaborate tail and deer antlers, appear to reduce survival by making individuals more conspicuous or cumbersome. 达尔文的观察: 达尔文注意到，一些特征，如孔雀的华丽尾巴和鹿的角，似乎通过使个体更加显眼或笨重来降低生存率。

Answer 34

Sexual Selection Mechanisms: Intrasexual Selection: Competition within the same sex for mates. Example: Male deer use their antlers to fight for access to females. Intersexual Selection: Mate choice based on traits that indicate genetic quality. Example: Peahens choose peacocks with the most elaborate tails. 性选择的机制：同性内选择：同性之间为配偶而竞争。例子：雄鹿使用其角来争夺雌性。异性间选择：基于表明遗传质量的特征进行配偶选择。例子：雌孔雀倾向于选择尾巴最华丽的雄孔雀。 Outcome of Sexual Selection: Traits that enhance reproductive success, even if they are costly for survival, persist over generations. These traits may compromise survival but increase mating opportunities and reproductive success. 性选择的结果: 即使对生存有所代价，增强繁殖成功率的特征也会世代相传。这些特征可能会妨碍生存，但增加交配机会和繁殖成功率。

Answer 35

Genes are the fundamental units of inheritance that control reproduction and survival. Evolutionary success is measured by the ability to pass these genes to the next generation, often through differential gene reproduction where certain traits that enhance survival and reproductive success are more likely to be passed along. 基因和进化成功：基因是控制繁殖和生存的基本遗传单位。进化成功是通过将这些基因传递给下一代的能力来衡量的，通常通过差异性基因繁殖来实现，其中增强生存和繁殖成功的特征更有可能被传递下去。

Answer 36

Inclusive Fitness Theory: Proposed by Hamilton in 1964, this theory suggests that evolution favors behaviors that enhance the survival and reproductive success of genetically related individuals. Helping relatives, or kin selection, increases the likelihood that shared genes are passed to the next generation. 包容性健康理论：1964年由汉密尔顿提出，该理论认为进化倾向于支持增强遗传相关个体的生存和繁殖成功的行为。帮助亲戚或亲属选择可以增加共享基因传递给下一代的可能性。 Example: Assisting a sibling with child-rearing can ensure that shared genetic material survives, despite potential personal risks, reflecting a balance between costs and reproductive gains. 例子：帮助兄弟姐妹抚养孩子可以确保共享的遗传物质得以生存，尽管可能存在个人风险，这反映了成本与繁殖收益之间的平衡。

Answer 37

Main Products of Evolution: The evolutionary process acts as a filter through which only certain traits are allowed to persist across generations, resulting in three main products: Adaptations: Traits that have been naturally selected because they increase the reproductive success of individuals. Byproducts of Adaptations: Traits that do not necessarily provide a reproductive advantage but occur as a side effect of adaptations. Noise (Random Variations): Genetic variations that do not have survival or reproductive advantages but occur due to random mutations and genetic drift. 进化过程的主要产物：进化过程充当过滤器，只允许某些特征在世代中持续存在，从而产生三个主要的产物：适应性特征：因增加个体的繁殖成功率而被自然选择的特征。适应性特征的副产品：这些特征本身并不一定提供繁殖优势，但作为适应性特征的副作用而出现。噪声（随机变异）：这些遗传变异没有生存或繁殖优势，但由于随机突变和遗传漂变而发生。

Answer 38

Definition of Adaptations: Adaptations are reliably developing structures in organisms that evolve to solve specific adaptive problems posed by the environment. Examples: Preference for sweet and fatty foods due to their high caloric content, which was crucial for survival in environments where food was scarce. The instinct to form close bonds with relatives to enhance group survival. Mate preferences that favor indicators of health to ensure reproductive success. 定义：适应性特征是生物体中可靠发展的结构，它们演化是为了解决环境提出的特定适应性问题。例子：对甜食和高脂食物的偏好，因为它们含高能量，在食物稀缺的环境中对生存至关重要。与亲属形成紧密联系的本能，以增强群体生存。偏好健康指标的配偶选择，以确保繁殖成功。

Answer 39

Key Characteristics of Adaptations: Reliably Developing: Traits that emerge consistently across individuals and generations, such as the development of eyesight. Not Genetically Deterministic: Adaptations require environmental input to develop fully, exemplified by the necessity of light for proper eye development. Response to Recurrent Environmental Challenges: Adaptations emerge due to recurring challenges in the environment, such as the development of a fear of venomous snakes or heights. Facilitate Survival and Reproduction: Adaptations solve adaptive problems that directly impact survival and reproduction, such as fear of heights preventing fatal falls. 关键特征：可靠发展：在个体和世代中一致出现的特征，如视力的发展。非基因决定性：适应性特征需要环境输入才能完全发展，例如眼睛发育需要光线。对常见环境挑战的响应：适应性特征是因环境中反复出现的挑战而发展的，如对有毒蛇或高处的恐惧。促进生存和繁殖：适应性特征解决了直接影响生存和繁殖的适应性问题，如恐高可以防止致命跌落。

Answer 40

Adaptations: Traits that have a specialized structure optimized for a specific function, demonstrating efficiency, precision, and reliability. Examples: The eye is highly specialized for vision. The immune system is specialized for detecting and fighting infections. Adaptive Problem: Anything that impedes survival, such as xenophobia which can be seen as an adaptation from ancestral times to fear strangers. 适应性特征：具有针对特定功能优化的专门结构的特征，显示出效率、精确性和可靠性。例子：眼睛高度专门化用于视觉。免疫系统专门化用于检测和对抗感染。适应性问题：任何阻碍生存的因素，如对陌生人的恐惧在祖先环境中可以看作是一种适应。

Answer 41

Byproducts of Adaptations: Traits that arise as side effects of adaptations but are not directly selected for their functions. 适应性特征的副产品：作为适应性特征的副作用出现的特征，但不是因其功能而直接被选择。 Example: The human nose evolved primarily for smelling odors but also incidentally serves to support glasses. The belly button is a byproduct of the umbilical cord, not an adaptation. 例子：人类的鼻子主要是为了嗅觉发展的，但也偶然用来支撑眼镜。肚脐是脐带的副产品，而不是一种适应。

Answer 42

Noise (Random Variations): Genetic variations that are neutral or random and do not significantly affect an organism’s survival or reproduction. 噪声（随机变异）：在进化术语中，指的是中性或随机的遗传变异，这些变异不会显著影响生物的生存或繁殖。 Cause: Genetic mutations. Random recombination during reproduction. 原因：遗传突变。生殖过程中的随机重组。 Example: Minor variations in fingerprint patterns. Slight differences in hair texture. 例子：指纹模式的微小变异。头发纹理的轻微差异。 Why does noise persist?: It does not hinder survival or reproduction. It is not selected against by natural selection. 为什么噪声会持续存在？：它不妨碍生存或繁殖。自然选择不会选择性地消除它。

Answer 43

Definition: Domain specificity refers to the idea that adaptations are designed to solve specific adaptive problems. Example: Food selection mechanisms that help individuals avoid poisonous plants and choose nutritious foods. Importance: Different problems require different solutions; using general mechanisms could be inefficient or even harmful. 定义：领域特异性指的是适应性特征被设计来解决特定的适应性问题。例子：食物选择机制帮助个体避开有毒植物并选择营养食品。重要性：不同的问题需要不同的解决方案；使用通用机制可能会效率低下甚至有害。

Answer 44

Definition: This principle states that the human mind contains many mechanisms, each evolved to handle specific challenges of the environment. Example: The instinctive fear of snakes acts as a psychological adaptation to protect individuals from potential threats. 定义：这一原则指出，人类大脑包含许多机制，每个机制都演化出来以处理环境中的特定挑战。例子：对蛇的本能恐惧作为心理适应机制，保护个体免受潜在威胁。

Answer 45

Definition: Functionality refers to the design of psychological mechanisms aimed at achieving specific adaptive goals. Example: Mate selection preferences evolved to favor partners who appear healthy or fertile, maximizing reproductive success. Importance: Understanding the functionality of these mechanisms helps explain why certain preferences or behaviors are prevalent. 定义：功能性是指心理机制的设计旨在实现特定的适应性目标。例子：伴侣选择偏好演化出来倾向于选择看起来健康或具有生育能力的伴侣，最大化繁殖成功。重要性：理解这些机制的功能有助于解释为什么某些偏好或行为很普遍。

Answer 46

Definition: Deductive reasoning is a "top-down," theory-driven approach where researchers start with a general theory and then formulate specific hypotheses to be tested through empirical research. Process: Develop a theory. Formulate hypotheses based on the theory. Conduct experiments or observations to test the hypotheses. Example: In evolutionary psychology, a theory might predict that behaviors such as altruism enhance reproductive success, and researchers would then test this prediction through studies. 定义：演绎推理是一种“自上而下”的、理论驱动的方法，研究者从一个普遍理论开始，然后制定具体假设通过实证研究进行测试。过程：发展理论。基于理论制定假设。进行实验或观察以测试假设。例子：在进化心理学中，一个理论可能预测如利他行为等行为能增强繁殖成功，研究者随后通过研究测试这一预测。

Answer 47

Inductive reasoning is a "bottom-up," data-driven method where researchers first observe specific phenomena and then develop theories to explain those observations. Process: Observe and document phenomena. Develop a theory to explain the observations. Example: After observing that men are generally more risk-taking than women, researchers may develop a theory about the evolutionary advantages of risk-taking behavior in males. 定义：归纳推理是一种“自下而上”的、数据驱动的方法，研究者首先观察具体现象，然后发展理论来解释这些观察。过程：观察并记录现象。发展理论以解释观察。例子：在观察到男性通常比女性更愿意冒险之后，研究者可能会发展一个关于男性冒险行为进化优势的理论。

Answer 48

Predictions: A theory's value is determined by its ability to generate new, testable predictions. Successful Predictions: If predictions are confirmed, the theory gains credibility and acceptance. Failed Predictions: If predictions are not supported, the theory may be questioned or require revision. Example: The mate deprivation hypothesis posited that men deprived of sexual access would be more aggressive. However, lack of empirical support for this prediction led to the hypothesis being questioned. 预测：理论的价值在于其产生新的、可测试的预测的能力。成功的预测：如果预测得到证实，理论将获得可信度和接受。失败的预测：如果预测得不到支持，可能会对理论提出质疑或需要修正。例子：配偶剥夺假说认为被剥夺性接触的男性会更具侵略性。然而，缺乏实证支持这一预测导致该假设受到质疑。

Answer 49

Criticisms: Evolutionary hypotheses are sometimes criticized for being vague or overly speculative. Response: Most evolutionary hypotheses are formulated in a precise and testable manner, adhering to scientific standards that ensure their validity. Responsibility: Scientists have the responsibility to ensure that all hypotheses, whether evolutionary or not, are formulated precisely and are testable. Example: Careful formulation and empirical testing of hypotheses about natural selection and mate preferences exemplify adherence to scientific rigor. 批评：进化假说有时因含糊或过度推测而受到批评。回应：大多数进化假说都以精确和可测试的方式制定，符合科学标准，确保其有效性。责任：科学家有责任确保所有假说，无论是否涉及进化，都是精确制定并且可测试的。例子：对自然选择和伴侣偏好假设的仔细制定和实证测试体现了对科学严谨的遵守。

Answer 50

Definition: Robert Hogan (1983) argued that human motivation is primarily driven by the need for social acceptance. Consequences of Social Rejection: Social rejection can lead to severe consequences such as stress, anxiety, and even physical pain. 定义：Robert Hogan（1983年）认为，人类的动机主要是由社会接受的需要驱动的。社会拒绝的后果：社会拒绝可以导致严重的后果，如压力、焦虑甚至身体疼痛。

Answer 51

Communion and Agency: The need to belong is driven by two evolutionary challenges—communion (getting along) and agency (getting ahead). Communion is the most instinctive motive; humans are inherently prosocial. Benefits of Group Membership: Evolutionary theories suggest that being part of a group provided protection, access to resources, social learning, and opportunities for mating. 社交和能力：归属需求由两个进化挑战驱动——社交（相处）和能力（超越）。社交是最本能的动机；人类天生是亲社会的。群体成员的好处：进化理论表明，成为群体的一部分提供了保护、资源获取、社会学习和交配机会。 Social Anxiety as Adaptation: Social anxiety is an adaptation to avoid being excluded, reflecting the deep-seated need to belong. Adaptive Functions of Groups: Groups serve adaptive functions by sharing resources, offering protection, finding mates, and containing kin for genetic relatives. Social Outcomes: Individuals who spend more time with others tend to show higher self-esteem, while those who feel rejected may experience worse health outcomes. 社会焦虑作为适应：社会焦虑是为了避免被排斥而形成的适应，反映了深层的归属需求。群体的适应功能：群体通过共享资源、提供保护、寻找配偶和包含亲属来服务于适应功能。社会结果：经常与他人共处的个体往往表现出更高的自尊，而感到被拒绝的人可能会经历更糟的健康结果。

Answer 52

Kin Selection: Altruism can be explained by kin selection, where individuals are more likely to help close relatives to ensure the survival of shared genetic material. Research Findings: Studies, such as those by Burnstein et al. (1994), suggest that people are more likely to help those who are genetically related and particularly younger individuals with higher reproductive potential, though infants and very elderly are helped less. Environmental Influence: Helping behavior increases in harsh environments, such as famine conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa. 利他主义可以通过亲属选择来解释：个体更有可能帮助亲近的亲属以确保共享的遗传物质的存活。研究发现：例如Burnstein等人（1994年）的研究表明，人们更倾向于帮助与自己遗传关系密切的人，特别是具有更高生殖潜力的年轻人，尽管婴儿和非常老的人得到的帮助较少。环境影响：在严酷的环境中，如撒哈拉以南非洲的饥荒条件下，帮助行为会增加。

Answer 53

Evolved Adaptations: Emotions are considered evolved adaptations that help individuals survive and achieve goals. Paul Ekman’s Research: Identified seven universal emotions - happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, and contempt, which are recognized across different cultures. Application: Emotions like happiness may guide a person toward achieving goals (e.g., high status), while emotions like anger can be used to manipulate or control others. Studies: Research on isolated groups like the Fore people of New Guinea supports the universality of these emotions. 情绪被视为进化适应：情绪帮助个体生存并实现目标。 Paul Ekman 的研究：确认了七种普遍情绪——快乐、悲伤、愤怒、恐惧、惊讶、厌恶和蔑视，这些情绪在不同文化中都有认可。应用：例如，快乐可能引导人实现目标（如高地位），而愤怒可以用来操纵或控制他人。研究：对新几内亚Fore人群的研究支持这些情绪的普遍性。

Answer 54

Empathy: Facilitates cooperation among individuals and groups. Aggression: Often explained as a means to deal with conflicts among groups or as a competitive strategy. Narcissism: Can be viewed as a trait that helps individuals pursue status and personal success. 同情心：促进个体和群体之间的合作。攻击性：通常被解释为处理群体间冲突或作为竞争策略的一种手段。自恋：可以被视为帮助个体追求地位和个人成功的特质。

Answer 55

Shared Adaptations: Both males and females have evolved similar traits where they faced common evolutionary challenges (e.g., mechanisms for food consumption and temperature regulation). Unique Adaptations: Due to different reproductive roles, males and females have evolved distinct psychological and physiological traits. Females: Adaptations related to pregnancy and childbirth have led to nurturing behaviors and a focus on assessing a male's ability to provide resources. Males: Faced with uncertainty in paternity, which has led to adaptations such as increased mate guarding and competition for high-value mates. 共享适应性：男性和女性在面临共同的进化挑战时，演化出了相似的特征（例如，食物消费和体温调节机制）。独特适应性：由于不同的生殖角色，男性和女性演化出了不同的心理和生理特征。女性：与怀孕和分娩相关的适应性导致了培养行为以及关注男性是否能提供资源的能力。男性：面对父权的不确定性，这导致了增加的配偶看护和对高价值配偶的竞争。

Answer 56

Evolutionary Explanation: Historically, males have competed for mates, leading to higher levels of aggression. Evidence includes the first recorded homicide victim being a Neanderthal man, and ancient remains suggesting men suffered more weapon-related injuries. Sexual Selection and Competition: In species where females invest heavily in offspring, males compete for access to mates, leading to effective polygyny where some males reproduce extensively while others are excluded. This competition results in greater variance in male reproductive success, leading to riskier behaviors including violence and dominance strategies. Sexually Dimorphic: Shows high variance in reproduction within one sex. 进化解释：历史上，男性为争夺配偶而竞争，导致侵略性水平较高。证据包括第一个被记录的谋杀受害者是一个尼安德特人男性，以及古代遗迹表明男性更多地遭受武器相关伤害。性选择和竞争：在雌性在后代上的投资重大的物种中，雄性为争夺配偶而竞争，导致有效的一夫多妻制，一些男性广泛繁殖而其他人被排除在生殖之外。这种竞争导致男性生殖成功的差异更大，从而导致包括暴力和支配策略在内的更高风险行为。性别二态性：在一个性别内显示出高度的繁殖差异。

Answer 57

Male Jealousy: Males are more distressed by sexual infidelity due to the threat to certainty of paternity. Evolutionary Adaptation: Sensitivity to sexual infidelity was advantageous for reproductive success. Female Jealousy: Females are more distressed by emotional infidelity due to potential loss of a partner’s resources and protection. Evolutionary Adaptation: Prioritizing emotional commitment ensured better survival for offspring. Empirical Evidence: Studies consistently find men more distressed by sexual infidelity and women more by emotional infidelity across cultures, including Germany, the Netherlands, Korea, and Japan. 男性嫉妒：男性对性不忠更感到不安，因为它威胁到父权的确定性。进化适应：对性不忠敏感有助于生殖成功。女性嫉妒：女性对情感不忠更感到不安，因为它威胁到伴侣资源和保护的流失。进化适应：优先考虑情感承诺确保了后代更好的生存。实证证据：研究一致发现，在包括德国、荷兰、韩国和日本在内的多个文化中，男性对性不忠的困扰更大，女性则对情感不忠的困扰更大。

Answer 58

Attachment-Fertility Hypothesis (Miller & Fishkin, 1997): Humans evolved to have multiple dependent offspring, requiring significant long-term parental investment. Males and females evolved jealousy mechanisms to maintain stable partnerships and maximize offspring survival. Jealousy bonds partners to stay together, facilitating better childcare and survival. 依恋-生育假设 (Miller & Fishkin, 1997)：人类演化出拥有多个依赖后代的特点，需要长期的父母投资。男性和女性演化出嫉妒机制以维持稳定的伴侣关系和最大化后代的生存。嫉妒使伴侣保持在一起，有助于更好地抚养孩子和生存。

Answer 59

Research Findings on Mate Preferences: Physical Attractiveness: Men rate physical attractiveness higher than women, supporting the idea that males prioritize fertility cues. Personality Traits: Both genders value kindness and an exciting personality, though "industriousness" is valued differently based on gender context. Financial Aspects: Financial stability is often more important to females, reflecting evolutionary preferences for resource availability. 伴侣选择上的研究发现：外貌吸引力：男性比女性更重视外貌吸引力，支持了男性优先考虑生育线索的观点。性格特质：两性都重视善良和有趣的性格，尽管“勤奋”这一特质的重视度根据性别背景有所不同。经济方面：经济稳定性对女性往往更重要，反映了对资源可用性的进化偏好。

Answer 60

Four Main Sources: 1. Universal Adaptations Contingent on Environment: Traits universally present but their expression is environmentally dependent. 2. Contingencies with Other Traits: Trait development dependent on interactions with other traits. 3. Frequency-Dependent Selection: Trait success dependent on its prevalence within a population. 4. Variation Over Time and Space: Traits evolve differently due to changing environmental conditions or geographic variations. 四个主要来源：环境条件下的普遍适应性：普遍存在的特征，但其表达依赖于环境。与其他特征的关联性：特征的发展依赖于与其他特征的相互作用。频率依赖选择：特征的成功依赖于其在人群中的普遍性。时间和空间上的最优值变化：由于环境条件或地理位置的变化，特征的演化各不相同。

Answer 61

Environmental Triggers: Environmental differences can influence psychological mechanisms, leading to varied individual responses. Analogy: Like calluses forming from repeated friction, psychological traits develop in response to environmental pressures. Childhood Adversity: Linked with higher neuroticism, lower agreeableness, and higher aggression; no significant correlation with traits like extraversion. Genotype-Environment Interactions: Childhood maltreatment effects vary depending on genetic factors like MAOA gene presence. 环境触发因素：环境差异可以影响心理机制，导致个体反应的多样化。类比：如同反复摩擦导致老茧形成一样，心理特征响应环境压力而发展。童年逆境：与更高的神经质、更低的宜人性和更高的攻击性相关；与外向性等特征无显著相关性。基因型-环境相互作用：童年虐待的影响根据如MAOA基因的遗传因素而变化。

Answer 62

Theory and Effects: Early father absence is theorized to lead to short-term mating strategies: Early sexual maturation, initiation, and frequent partner switching. Stable father involvement is associated with long-term mating strategies: Delayed sexual maturation, later sexual initiation, and preference for stable relationships. Empirical Evidence: Children from divorced homes tend to be more sexually promiscuous. Father-absent homes linked to earlier menarche in girls. Short-term mating predispositions correlate with higher divorce rates and lower investment in offspring. 理论与影响：早期父亲缺席被认为会导致短期交配策略：早期性成熟、性启蒙和频繁的伴侣更换。稳定的父亲参与与长期交配策略相关：延迟性成熟、较晚性启蒙和偏好稳定关系。实证证据：离婚家庭的孩子往往更性放纵。父亲缺席的家庭与女孩更早的月经初潮相关。短期交配倾向与更高的离婚率和对后代的较低投资相关。

Answer 63

Contingencies Among Traits: Individual differences may arise not just from environmental influences but from how certain traits interact with each other. Example: Aggressiveness may only be beneficial when coupled with physical strength; otherwise, it could be detrimental if the individual is physically weak. 特征之间的依赖关系：个体差异可能不仅仅源于环境影响，还来自某些特征之间的相互作用。例子：攻击性可能只在与体力强时有利；否则，如果个体体力弱，攻击性可能是有害的。

Answer 64

Individuals may pursue aggressive strategies if they have the physical traits (e.g., size, strength) to support such behavior. Others might adopt non-aggressive, cooperative strategies depending on their physical abilities. The effectiveness of these strategies often depends on one's physical traits. 个性的进化视角：如果个体具备支持这种行为的体力特征（如体型、力量），他们可能会采取侵略性策略。其他人可能根据他们的体力能力采取非侵略性、合作性策略。这些策略的有效性通常取决于个体的体力特征。

Answer 65

Frequency-Dependent Selection: A process where the reproductive success of a trait depends on its frequency relative to other traits in the population. Example: In a population where cooperation is common, rare cheaters may benefit until they become too common, at which point cooperators evolve defenses to punish or reduce the success of cheaters. 频率依赖选择：一种特征的生殖成功取决于其相对于种群中其他特征的频率的过程。例子：在一个合作常见的种群中，罕见的骗子可能会受益，直到他们变得太常见，在这一点上，合作者会进化出防御机制来惩罚或减少骗子的成功。

Answer 66

Influence of Frequency-Dependent Selection: Women's mating strategies may evolve based on the relative frequencies of different strategies within the population. Observation: Competition tends to be more intense among individuals who employ similar mating strategies. Key Qualities Sought in Male Partners: Parental Investment: Commitment and resource provision. Genetic Quality: Good health, physical attractiveness, and high-status traits. Trade-offs in Mate Selection: Attractive men may be less willing to commit, leading women to sometimes settle for short-term relationships to secure good genes without parental investment. 频率依赖选择的影响：女性的交配策略可能基于种群中不同策略的相对频率而演化。观察：使用相似交配策略的个体之间的竞争往往更为激烈。在男性伴侣中寻找的关键特质：父权投资：承诺和资源提供。遗传质量：良好的健康、体貌吸引力和高地位特征。交配选择中的权衡：吸引人的男性可能不愿意承诺，导致女性有时倾向于短期关系，以获得良好的遗传基因而无需父权投资。

Answer 67

Restricted Strategy (限制性策略): Involves delayed intercourse and prolonged courtship. Allows women to assess a man's commitment and detect prior commitments. Unrestricted Strategy (非限制性策略): Focuses less on long-term commitment and more on genetic quality. Relationships may dissolve faster as the strategy evolves dynamically based on frequency-dependent selection. Dynamic Nature of Mating Strategies: The success of each strategy depends on its prevalence in the population. When a strategy becomes more common, it becomes less effective; when rarer, more effective. 限制性策略：包括延迟性交和长期求爱。允许女性评估男性的承诺水平并探测先前的承诺。非限制性策略：更少关注长期承诺，更多关注遗传质量。基于频率依赖选择的动态演变，关系可能更快解散。交配策略的动态性质：每种策略的成功取决于其在种群中的普及程度。当一种策略变得更常见时，它变得不那么有效；当较为稀有时，更有效。

Answer 68

Psychopathy is suggested to be maintained by frequency-dependent selection, serving as an alternative social strategy that can be effective when it is less common in the population. Characteristics: Psychopaths engage in deceptive behavior, show low empathy, impulsivity, and egocentrism, and use superficial charm to manipulate others. Why It Persists: The effectiveness of psychopathy reduces as the number of cheaters increases, prompting cooperators to evolve defenses. However, if the number of psychopaths remains small, their strategy can be effective within a predominantly cooperative population. Psychopathy and Behavioral Genetics: Psychopathy is moderately heritable, suggesting a genetic basis for these behaviors. Psychopaths tend to engage in short-term exploitative mating strategies, contributing to their gene transmission. 精神病理学作为一种社会策略：精神病理学被认为是通过频率依赖选择维持的，当其在种群中较少见时，可以作为一种有效的社会策略。特征：精神病患者从事欺骗行为，表现出低同理心、冲动和自我中心，使用肤浅的魅力来操纵他人。为什么它能持续存在：当作弊者数量增加时，精神病理学的效果会降低，促使合作者进化出防御机制。然而，如果精神病患者的数量保持较少，他们的策略在主要合作的人群中可以是有效的。精神病理学与行为遗传学：精神病理学具有适度的遗传性，表明这些行为具有遗传基础。精神病患者倾向于从事短期的剥削性交配策略，有助于他们的基因传播。

Answer 69

Life History Strategy: Life history strategies describe how individuals allocate effort in reproductive problems, varying from long-term to short-term focus. Two Main Strategies: K-strategy: Prioritizes long-term mating, parenting, parental bonds, and survival. Low-K strategy: Focuses on short-term mating, risk-taking, and investment in fewer offspring. Empirical Support: Studies suggest that mating strategies co-vary with life history strategies, influenced by environmental conditions and individual predispositions. 生活史策略与频率依赖选择：生活史策略描述个体在生殖问题中如何分配努力，从长期到短期焦点不等。两种主要策略： K策略：优先考虑长期交配、育儿、亲子关系和生存。低K策略：专注于短期交配、冒险行为和较少后代的投资。实证支持：研究表明，交配策略与生活史策略共变，受环境条件和个体倾向的影响。

Answer 70

Optimal Variance: Refers to the idea that the "optimum level" of a trait varies over time and space, making different levels of a trait more or less adaptive depending on the environment. This variation helps maintain diversity within the human population, allowing for a range of responses to environmental changes. 时间和空间中的最优变异：指一个特征的“最佳水平”随时间和空间变化，使得一个特征的不同水平在不同环境中的适应性高低不同。这种变异有助于维持人类群体中的多样性，允许对环境变化做出一系列反应。

Answer 71

Food Availability and Risk-Taking: During food scarcity, selection favors risk-taking traits, encouraging individuals to venture for food and increase survival despite potential dangers. In times of food abundance, cautious personalities are favored to reduce unnecessary risks and prioritize stability. 环境对特征选择的影响：在食物稀缺时，自然选择倾向于风险承担特征，鼓励个体为寻找食物冒险，尽管有潜在危险，但可以提高生存率。在食物充足时，谨慎的性格受到青睐，以减少不必要的风险并优先考虑稳定性。

Answer 72

Balancing Selection and the Big Five: Extraversion: Increases mating success and social alliances; however, it may lead to higher risk-taking and unstable relationships. Neuroticism: Enhances vigilance against threats; however, it can cause higher stress and shorter life expectancy. Openness to Experience: Fosters creativity and curiosity; however, it can lead to unusual beliefs and, in extreme cases, psychosis. Conscientiousness: Promotes long-term success and increased lifespan; however, it may cause missed immediate opportunities. Agreeableness: Enhances social cooperation and harmony; however, it increases the risk of being manipulated. 大五人格特质的平衡选择：外向性：提高交配成功率和社交联盟；然而，它可能导致更高的风险承担和不稳定的关系。神经质：增强对威胁的警觉性；然而，它可能导致更高的压力和较短的预期寿命。经验开放性：促进创造力和好奇心；然而，它可能导致不寻常的信仰，在极端情况下，可能导致精神病。尽责性：促进长期成功和延长寿命；然而，它可能导致错过即时机会。宜人性：增强社会合作和和谐；然而，它增加了被操纵的风险。

Answer 73

Long-Term Adaptations: Since adaptations occur over thousands or millions of years, it's challenging to ascertain with certainty the specific selective forces that shaped human traits. Inference Limitations: Current mechanisms are used to infer past selection pressures, but these inferences carry inherent limitations due to the lack of direct observational evidence from the past. 长期适应性：由于适应发生在成千上万年的时间框架内，确切确定塑造人类特质的具体选择力量非常具有挑战性。推理局限性：现有机制被用来推断过去的选择压力，但由于缺乏来自过去的直接观察证据，这些推断具有固有的局限性。

Answer 74

Lack of Direct Evidence: There is no way to directly observe past environments to confirm exactly what pressures influenced psychological traits. Modern vs. Ancestral Conditions: The environments in which modern humans operate are vastly different from those of our ancestors, potentially making some previously adaptive traits maladaptive in today's world. Testing Difficulties: While evolutionary explanations for behavior are frequently intuitive, empirically testing these hypotheses is often challenging. Unfalsifiability Accusations: Some evolutionary hypotheses are criticized for being too vague and speculative to be scientifically useful. 缺乏直接证据：没有办法直接观察过去的环境以确切确认哪些压力影响了心理特质。现代与祖先条件：现代人类的环境与我们的祖先的环境大相径庭，这可能使一些过去的适应性特质在今天的世界中变得不适应。测试困难：虽然对行为的进化解释通常很直观，但经验上测试这些假设往往具有挑战性。不可证伪的指控：一些进化假设因过于模糊和推测而被批评为在科学上无用。

Lecture 4 (Chapter 6 + 8) Flashcards

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