Lecture 8 (Chapter 16 + 17) Flashcards

Question

How do socialization and social roles shape sex differences?

Answer 1

Socialization theory argues that women and men become different because boys are reinforced by parents, teachers, and the media for being masculine, and girls for being feminine. This is one of the most widely held theories of sex differences in personality. Social learning theory: a general theoretical view emphasizing the ways in which the presence of others influences people’s behaviour, thoughts, or feelings. Often combined with learning principles, the emphasis is on how people acquire beliefs, values, skills, attitudes, and patterns of behaviour through social experiences. Surveys of parents and adolescents from 15 countries around the world revealed global tendencies to see boys as independent and girls as vulnerable and in need of protection, and to restrict the mobility of girls more than that of boys. Bedroom furnishings and toys of middle-class preschoolers are nearly as gender-typed today as they were 40 years ago.

Answer 2

Girls are socialized to be more sexually restrained than the boys, such as delaying sexual intercourse. - Daughter-guarding hypothesis: protecting a daughter's sexual reputation and mate value may have increased reproductive success than that of sons In terms of competitiveness, social factors likely play a greater role than innate or biological differences between the sexes.

Answer 3

Jadva et al. (2010): Observed 120 infants at 12 months. Male infants looked more at toy cars; female infants looked more at dolls. Both sexes preferred dolls overall, but girls showed a higher frequency. Both boys and girls preferred red over blue. Conclusion: Avoidance of dolls in older boys and preference for pink in girls likely due to socialization. Despite socialization, some preferences emerged at very young ages, suggesting partial innate influence. Alexander et al. (2008) and Todd et al. (2018): Found evidence of sex-linked toy preferences in infants as young as 3–8 months across different cultures.

Answer 4

States that sex differences originate because men and women are distributed differentially into occupational and family roles. Men, for example, are expected to assume the breadwinning role. Women are expected to assume the housewife role. Over time, children presumably learn the behaviours that are linked to these roles. Social role assignment had a large impact on the dominant behaviours that were expressed. The women and men assigned to the supervisor role displayed significantly more dominance, whereas those assigned the supervisee role displayed significantly more submissiveness According to this theory, sex differences should diminish as society continues to become more egalitarian. Surprisingly, one study found that the most gender-egalitarian countries have shown the largest sex differences in personality. Maybe because certain innate differences between women and men may have more space to develop in prosperous societies.

Answer 5

Gender schemas and stereotypes are believed to play a role in the distribution of males and females into different social roles. However, there is evidence that exposure to role models who contradict gender stereotypes can temporarily influence the career aspirations of children and adolescents, such that they are more likely to aspire to counter-stereotypical careers.

Answer 6

Hormonal theories argue that sex differences in behaviour arise not because of the external social environment but because the sexes have different amounts of specific hormones. It is these physiological differences, not differential social treatment, that causes boys and girls to diverge over development. Limitation: Hormonal theories don’t explain the origin of sex differences—why do men and women differ so much in testosterone in the first place? Could be genetic, chromosomal, or evolutionary (e.g., evolutionary psychology argues hormones shape traits that evolved for survival and reproduction).

Answer 7

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): Females with CAH are exposed to high levels of androgens like testosterone prenatally. CAH girls show male-typical toy preferences (e.g., trucks), and later, masculine cognitive skills and occupational preferences. (Berenbaum & Snyder, 1995; Kimura, 2002) Manning, Trivers, & Fink (2017) found prenatal androgen levels predict masculine traits in adulthood. testosterone levels differ in men and women: Women: 200–440 pg/mL (peaks just before ovulation). Testosterone spikes before ovulation and is linked to increased sexual desire and initiation. Men do not show the same link. Men: 5,140–6,460 pg/mL — typically 10x higher than women post-puberty.

Answer 8

Higher testosterone is linked with: Aggression, dominance, sexual desire, and male-stereotypical careers In women, it’s associated with masculine self-identification and career preferences Lesbian women: More “masculine” partners had higher testosterone Prison inmates and fraternity members with more infractions had higher testosterone Sexual arousal itself can result in an increase in testosterone level *The link between hormones and behaviour may be bidirectional

Answer 9

According to evolutionary psychology, men and women differ primarily in domains involving adaptive problems—challenges related to survival and reproduction. These differences emerged through evolutionary pressures, while similarities exist in non-reproductive domains (e.g., taste preferences for fat, sugar, protein). Women: Face high biological investment (pregnancy, child-rearing), so they evolved to be more selective in mate choice. Men: Can reproduce with minimal investment, so they evolved to be more sexually motivated, less selective, and more competitive for mates. Women prefer men who signal ability and willingness to invest in offspring.

Answer 10

It doesn’t fully explain individual differences within each sex (e.g., why some women are more callous vs. nurturing). Research suggests: Some women may benefit from short-term mating strategies, gaining access to better genes or resources. Some switch partners to get better offspring outcomes.

Answer 11

An integrated theory combines evolutionary, socialization, and hormonal explanations. Evolutionary psychology explains why the sexes differ. Socialization and hormonal theories explain how they became different. That understanding sex differences requires combining: - Social factors (social roles, parenting) - Hormonal influences (like testosterone) - Evolutionary processes (adaptive functions)

Answer 12

The three key goals are (1) to discover the principles underlying the cultural diversity; (2) to discover how human psychology shapes culture; and (3) to discover how cultural understandings in turn shape our psychology.

Answer 13

- Cultural differences created by differing environmental conditions activating a predictable set of responses 比如住在赤道附近会使人流汗更多，或者不穿鞋的culture的人脚上的死皮更多需要两种因素才能有cultural variation: 1)人们身上的汗腺 2）人们所居住的环境的不同，温度不同 So in sum, events activate mechanisms in some groups that lie dormant in others.

Answer 14

Evoked cooperation happens when people live in conditions with high food variance, meaning that the source of food (such as meat) is unstable, e,g., you can hunt one day and be lucky to get an animal, but the next day, you may come home empty-handed. So if you share with other people on the day you have food, they will share it with you on the day you don't have food. - The benefits of engaging in cooperative food sharing increase under conditions of high variance. - The degree of egalitarianism is also closely correlated with the variance in food supply: - High-variance food, more cooperation and egalitarian beliefs - Low-variance food, great economic inequality and less sharing

Answer 15

Children in uncertain and unpredictable environments( such as inconsistent child-rearing practices, erratically provided resources, and marital discord) learn that they cannot rely on a single partner and as a result, opt for a sexual life that starts early and involves multiple mates. On the other hand, children in stable homes with parents who predictably invest in their welfare opt for a strategy of long-term partnering because they are expected to attract a stable, high-investing mate. 证据：比如离异父母的孩子可能更加冲动，更早进入青春期，更早发生性行为，比没离婚父母的孩子拥有更多的性伴侣。

Answer 16

Culture of honour: Nisbett proposed that the economic means of subsistence of a culture affects the degree to which the group develops. In such cultures, insults are viewed as highly offensive public challenges that must be met with direct confrontation and physical aggression. The theory is that differences in the degree to which honour becomes a central part of the culture rest ultimately with economics, and specifically with the manner in which food is obtained. - e.g., The southerners in the U.S. are more aggressive than the northerners, as shown in higher levels of testosterone, greater aggression, higher levels of intimate partner violence, and more school shootings Such as people in herding culture need to set up the reputation that they can respond to thieves with violent force.

Answer 17

- Evolutionary psychology: the prevalence of disease-causing pathogens causes culture pressure to conform. (such as avoiding sick people) - Conformity to group norms can help avoid contact with diseases - Cultures with a high historical prevalence of pathogens tend to be more conformist. Conforming to group norms (e.g., food preparation rules) reduces the risk of exposure to diseases.逻辑是以前病菌特别流行的地方，现在更加小心，也更加conforming to culture - In contrast, cultures with low pathogen prevalence are more tolerant of nonconformity. Example: Studies show that people in high-pathogen regions are more likely to follow rules and traditions strictly.

Answer 18

- Similar to conformity, higher historical pathogen levels are linked to authoritarianism (preference for strict rules and authority). This may help avoid risky, novel situations that could expose people to diseases. Traits like lower extraversion, lower openness, and more restricted sexuality are also more common in high-pathogen cultures. Evoked Culture: This is the idea that universal human traits (e.g., tendency to conform) are "activated" differently depending on environmental factors (like disease threats). For example, the same human capacity for conformity might be more strongly expressed in high-pathogen environments.

Answer 19

Representations originally in the mind of one or more persons that are transmitted to the minds of other people. Three examples of cultural variants that appear to be forms of transmitted culture are differences in moral values, self-concept, and levels of self-enhancement. Specific patterns of morality, such as whether it is considered appropriate to eat beef or wrong for a wife to go to the movies without her husband, are specific to certain cultures. These moral values appear to be transmitted from person to person within the culture.

Answer 20

- Present people with different moral dilemmas and compare their responses: 经典的火车拉杆实验，牺牲五个人救一个人还是牺牲一个人救五个人那个只有52%的中国受访者认为在火车困境中拉动控制杆是morally acceptable的，但是81%美国人认为这样是可以的 - One possible reason: a transmitted culture called Chinese fatalism (one should allow events to run their natural course without active interference顺其自然） - also possible due to the impact of individualism vs. collectivism on cognitive processes. Cultural differences in individualism and collectivism also appear to be maintained by transmission. - Key point: many moral values are specific to particular cultures and are likely examples of transmitted culture. They appear to be passed from one generation to the next. through the teaching of parents and teachers or observations of the behaviour of others

Answer 21

Value orientation An individual’s beliefs about the importance or primacy of personal versus collective (i.e., socially relevant) goals. Self-construal The grounds for self-definition; the extent to which the self is defined independently of others or interdependently with others. - interdependence vs. independence: Interdependence, or communion, involves how you are affiliated with, attached to, or engaged in the larger group of which you are a member. It includes your relationships with other members of the group and your embeddedness within the group. Independence, or agency, involves how you differentiate yourself from the larger group and includes your unique abilities, personal internal motives, and personality dispositions. - Independence self concept: autonomous, stable, coherent, and free from the influences of others - Interdependence self-concept: connected, interpersonally flexible, and committed to being bound to others

Answer 22

- The Chinese adolescents who have immigrated to Canada are more likely to label themselves as Chinese rather than Chinese Canadian, suggesting that they see themselves as separate from Canadian culture. Their personal self-esteem was also closely tied to positive evaluations of their ethnic group (collective self-esteem). - CBC's personal self-esteem was independent of collective self-esteem

Answer 23

Twenty Statements Test: - American self-descriptions were highly similar across different situations. (used abstract, context-independent trait terms such as friendly and assertive) - Japanese self-descriptions varied significantly across different situations. ("I am a good student" in the context of being in a professor's office) - 84% Japanese students described themselves as ordinary, whereas 96% Americans described themselves as special - Standing out and being unique vs. fitting in and going along with the group - Japanese: holistic way of processing information that involves attention to relationships, contexts, and links between the focal objects and the field as a whole. - North Americans: analytic way of processing information detached from its context and a reliance on rules about the categories to explain behaviour.

Answer 24

Acculturation: After arriving in a new culture, the process of adapting to the ways of life and beliefs common in that new culture. - Asian Americans with strong American identity used abstract, autonomous self-descriptions (similar to European Americans). - Asian Americans with strong Asian identity used socially embedded self-descriptions (similar to Asians in Seoul). - Described themselves in terms of roles (e.g., "student") and relationships (e.g., "son"). - Included more contextual information in self-descriptions. - Suggests that cultural identity strength influences self-concept adaptation. Higher participation in American culture led to more "American-like" personality profiles: ↓ Neuroticism (less emotional instability) ↓ Conscientiousness (less emphasis on discipline/order) ↑ Openness (more curiosity/new experiences) Shows that acculturation shifts personality traits toward the host culture’s norms.

Answer 25

1. Overgeneralization & Lack of Universality Evidence is limited: - Most studies compare only North America (individualist) and East Asia (collectivist), ignoring other cultures - Overlap exists: People in collectivist cultures still use trait-based self-descriptions (e.g., "agreeable"), while individualist cultures sometimes use relational terms (e.g., "I am a daughter"). - Differences are a matter of degree, not strict dichotomies 2. Situational & Contextual Variability - Self-concepts shift depending on context (e.g., Canadians act individualistic in games but interdependent at family gatherings) - Experimental priming can temporarily activate individualism or collectivism - Bicultural orientation is possible: Immigrants may blend both independent and interdependent self-concepts 3. Small Effect Sizes & Exceptions - European Americans are only slightly more individualistic than some groups (e.g., not more than African Americans/Latinos). - No clear collectivism extremes: Japanese/Koreans were not consistently more collectivist than Europeans; Chinese stood out as uniquely collectivist. - People in both individualist (U.S., Australia) and collectivist (Mexico, Philippines) cultures frequently used trait-based self-descriptions and prioritized personal identity.

Answer 26

1. Horizontal collectivism: the extent to which individuals emphasize interdependence but do not value status or submit easily to authority. e.g., communal living that values equality 2. Vertical collectivism: the extent to which individuals emphasize interdependence as well as competition between groups e.g., military structure 3. Vertical individualism: the extent to which individuals desire to be distinct without desiring special status e.g., Sweden 4. Vertical individualism: the extent to which individuals desire to be distinct and have special status over others e.g., the US

Answer 27

Transmitted culture: Ideas (e.g., Descartes’ individualism, Confucian collectivism) spread across generations. Evolutionary perspective (Oyserman et al., 2002b): - Collectivism may evolve in low-mobility, resource-scarce, kin-heavy societies. - Individualism may thrive in high-mobility, resource-rich, low-kin-proximity societies. Humans flexibly switch between modes based on context.

Answer 28

Metapersonal self-construal is a self-concept involving definition of the self within a much broader context, such as the global community, humankind, the planet, or the cosmos. - Seeing one as a member of the human race, similar to a "spiritual self", in which the boundary between the self and the environment vanishes, and one experiences a feeling of unity with all things - May reflect a selfless concept, in which identity is anchored in elements of existence that extend beyond the individual - A significant association with environmental concern and pro-environmental behaviour, feelings of connectedness to nature - "Biospheric value orientation": focuses the inherent value of the environment beyond the rights of any one species

Answer 29

Indigenous communities in Canada maintain a collectivistic orientation despite living within a broader individualistic cultural context. Indigenous youth tend to display higher levels of success and well-being when they report feeling connected meaningfully to their indigenous culture. However, their culture continues to be highly stigmatized and marginalized. Such experiences have compromised clarity of both self-concept and cultural identity. "Slef-continuity" is also core to one's self-concept. It is the understanding of ourselves as individuals persisting through time, despite any momentary variation. - A lack of self-continuity and identity clarity compromises mental health and increases the likelihood of suicidal ideation. - Increased drinking and alcohol abuse, lower self-esteem and well-being

Answer 30

Self-enhancement: The tendency to describe and present oneself using positive or socially valued attributes, such as kind, understanding, intelligent, and industrious. Tendencies toward self-enhancement tend to be stable over time, and hence are enduring features of personality. - Japanese describe themselves in more negative terms as compared to North Americans. 1. Key Findings on Self-Enhancement Across Cultures - Koreans more likely to endorse negative self-statements. North Americans more likely to endorse positive self-statements. - North American parents describe themselves positively. Korean parents give mostly negative self-evaluations. Chinese lower in self-enhancement, but only on certain traits. 2. Group Evaluations (In-Group vs. Out-Group) - Canadians show strong in-group favoritism (rate their own university higher than rivals). Japanese: no in-group bias—rate own and rival universities similarly. - Asian-Canadians more self-critical than Euro-Canadians. 3. Possible Explanations for Cultural Differences - Impression Management: Asians may privately self-enhance but avoid public positivity to maintain modesty. North Americans may exaggerate positivity due to social expectations. - Genuine Self-Evaluations: Asians may truly self-evaluate more negatively due to cultural values (e.g., humility). Individualism linked to higher narcissism and self-enhancement. 4. Universal Self-Enhancement Bias (With Cultural Nuances) Kurman (2001) Study (Singaporeans, Druze Israelis, Jewish Israelis): All cultures self-enhanced on communal traits (e.g., honesty, generosity). Singaporeans self-enhanced less on agentic traits (e.g., intelligence) than Israelis. Suggests self-enhancement is universal, but degree varies by trait/culture.

Answer 31

1. Socioeconomic Class Differences - Lower-class parents emphasize obedience to authority (prepares children for rule-following jobs). Higher-class parents emphasize self-direction/nonconformity (linked to managerial/creative roles). - Higher-class individuals show greater self-direction, intellectual flexibility, and lower conformity. Lower-class individuals tend to be more generous/charitable. - Caveat: Correlational—could reflect self-selection (e.g., flexible people gravitate to higher-status jobs) or socialization effects. 2. Historical Era Effects - Great Depression (1930s): Increased anxiety about job security, conservative spending. - Sexual Revolution (1960s–70s): Greater openness to experimentation. - Internet Age: Expanded social horizons (e.g., online dating, global interactions). Over 25 years in the Netherlands: ↑ Extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness. ↓ Neuroticism. 3. Overlap in Cultural Distributions Individualism-Collectivism: - While group averages differ (e.g., Asians > collectivism; North Americans > individualism), individual overlap is significant - Some North Americans score higher in collectivism than some Asians, and vice versa.

Answer 32

The largest difference lies on extraversion, with North Americans and Europeans scoring higher than Asians and Africans on this broad trait. - In general, observed cultural differences in average personalities are relatively small. Most of the differences in personality occur within cultures, not between cultures.

Answer 33

1. The WEIRD Problem Definition: Most psychology studies sample Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic (WEIRD) populations. Issue: Findings from WEIRD groups (often U.S. undergraduates) are assumed to apply universally, despite representing <12% of humanity (Henrich et al., 2010). 2. Key Limitations of WEIRD Research Geographic Bias: 70% of psychology citations are U.S.-based (vs. 37% in chemistry). Ignores cultural diversity in human behavior. Assumption of Universality: Researchers often fail to address cross-cultural generalizability (e.g., assuming cognitive biases are universal). Within-WEIRD Differences: Even among Westerners, Americans are outliers (e.g., extreme individualism). Student samples differ from non-student populations. 3. Evidence of Non-Generalizability Industrialized vs. Small-Scale Societies: Differences in cognitive processes (e.g., memory, perception) and social norms (e.g., fairness, cooperation). Western vs. Non-Western Cultures: Contrasts in analytic (Western) vs. holistic (East Asian) reasoning. WEIRD samples overestimate individualism and underestimate collectivism. Risk: Misrepresenting human nature by overgeneralizing WEIRD findings. Solutions Proposed: Cross-cultural replication: Test theories in diverse societies. Explicitly address limitations in studies (e.g., "Findings may not generalize to non-WEIRD populations"). Diversify samples: Include non-industrialized, non-Western, and non-student participants.

Answer 34

Features of personality that are common to everyone in all cultures. These universals constitute the human nature level of analyzing personality and define the elements of personality we share with all or most other people.

Answer 35

High cross-cultural consensus on traits linked to men vs. women 1. Favorability (desirability): Both genders had equal mix of positive/negative traits. Positive masculine: Serious, inventive. Negative masculine: Arrogant, bossy. Positive feminine: Charming, appreciative. Negative feminine: Fearful, affected. 2. Strength (power): Male traits rated as stronger. 3. Activity (energy): Male traits rated as more active. Interpretations of Universality - Social Role Theory: Stereotypes reflect historical division of labor (e.g., men as soldiers = "aggressive"; women as caregivers = "nurturing"). - Biological Differences: Aligns with observed sex differences (e.g., men higher in physical aggression; women lower in emotional stability). BUT: Social reinforcement likely exaggerates innate differences.

Answer 36

1. - Cultural Variability Claim: Some argue cultures lack words for certain emotions (e.g., Tahitians allegedly have no word for "grief"), implying they don’t experience them. Example: Tahitian parents reportedly smile after a child’s death (vs. Western grief). - Universality Claim: Steven Pinker (1997): Cultures differ in expression of emotions, but all humans experience the same basic emotions ("same keyboard"). Darwin (1872): Found cross-cultural consistency in facial expressions (e.g., grief, disgust). 2. Evidence for Universal Emotions Paul Ekman’s Research: Photos of 6 basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise) were recognized across cultures, including isolated groups like the Fore of New Guinea. Later expanded to include contempt, embarrassment, shame. Blind Children (Lazarus, 1991): Display the same facial expressions as sighted individuals, suggesting innate, evolutionary origins. Nonverbal Vocalizations (Sauter et al., 2010): Namibians and Westerners mutually recognized emotions like joy/disgust from sounds (e.g., "yuck"). 3. Language vs. Emotion Pinker’s Argument: Lack of a word (e.g., Tahitian "grief") doesn’t mean lack of experience (e.g., "I feel sick" after a death). Example: English speakers understand Schadenfreude (pleasure at others’ misfortune) even without a native word. Whorfian Hypothesis Contrast: Suggests language limits thought/emotion (disputed by universal emotion findings). 4. Expression vs. Experience Ekman’s Experiment: Japanese and Americans felt the same disgust watching a graphic film but expressed it differently in public (Japanese smiled politely; Americans showed horror). When alone, both groups showed identical facial expressions. Key Insight: Cultural norms shape public displays of emotion, not the internal experience. 5. Implications Universality: Supports evolutionary theories of emotion (e.g., Darwin). Cultural Nuance: Display rules (e.g., suppressing anger in Japan) vary, but underlying emotions are shared.

Answer 37

1. The Core Debate Western Bias Concern: Some argue personality traits are a Western construct (Church, 2000), implying non-Western cultures may not share this framework. Universality Claim: Others assert traits are universal, with similar structures (e.g., Big Five) appearing globally (Saucier & Goldberg, 2001). 2. Evidence for Trait Universality Indigenous Trait Concepts: Non-Western cultures have trait-like terms (e.g., Filipino pakikisama = harmony; Japanese amae = dependence), showing cross-cultural recognition of stable dispositions. Factor Structure Consistency: Big Five (FFM) replication: Found in diverse cultures (France, Philippines, Croatia) and language families (Sino-Tibetan, Malayo-Polynesian) 50-culture study: Observer ratings confirmed the FFM with minor variations, supporting universality beyond self-reports. - Four out of five factors emerge consistently across cultures. The fifth factor is somewhat variable across cultures and therefore may reflect an important lack of universality of personality trait structure. - Sixth factor: honesty-humility

Answer 38

"Transport and Test": Translate Western questionnaires (e.g., NEO-PI-R) for non-Western samples. Criticism: May overlook culturally unique traits (e.g., ren qin in Chinese culture). Indigenous Approaches: Develop measures within cultures to identify local traits (e.g., Chinese "Interpersonal Relatedness" factor; Cheung et al., 2001). Limitations & Nuances Cultural Specificity: Some traits (e.g., "Openness") may manifest differently (e.g., intellectual vs. aesthetic openness). Example: Filipino pakikiramdam (empathy) isn’t fully captured by Agreeableness. Methodological Bias: Forced-choice surveys may obscure cultural nuances (Heine et al., 2002).

Answer 39

1. Lexical Approach Studies (De Raad et al., 1998) Method: Identified indigenous trait terms in Dutch, German, Hungarian, Italian, Czech, and Polish. Trait terms constituted ~4.4% of dictionary entries across languages. Results: Four universal factors: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability. Fifth factor varied: Polish/German: Similar to Openness (intellect/imagination). Dutch: Political orientation (conservative vs. progressive). Hungarian: Truthfulness (just vs. hypocritical). 2. HEXACO Model (Ashton et al., 2004; Saucier et al., 2005) Sixth factor "Honesty-Humility" emerged cross-culturally, capturing traits like fairness and modesty. Example: Filipino pakikisama (harmony) aligns with Agreeableness but emphasizes relational ethics. 3. Non-Western Variations Chinese CPAI Model (Cheung et al., 2001): Four factors: Dependability, Social Potency, Individualism/Accommodation, Interpersonal Relatedness (unique to Eastern cultures). Tsimane People (Bolivia): Two factors: Prosociality (Agreeableness + Extraversion) and Industriousness (Conscientiousness + energy). Khockhoegowab (Namibia): 11-factor model better predicted local adjustment than Western models (Thalmayer et al., 2021). Industrialized societies emphasize Openness; subsistence communities prioritize Prosociality/Industriousness (Gurven et al., 2013).