Lecture 6 (Chapter 10 + 11) Flashcards
1
Q
What is the Neo-Analytic Movement?
A
Neo-Freudians followed Freud’s ideas and developed further. Most of these people had their own breakups with Freud, except his daughter Anna Freud.
Freud’s psychology was referred to as the Id psychology.
2
Q
What did the Neo-Freudians think about Id Psychology?
A
They disagreed with it and instead focused on the development of the ego within reality.
Emphasized the role of identity, which is experienced by a person as a sense of self
Explored the narcissism trait, in part because of its complexities
3
Q
What is the definition of narcissism?
A
An extreme preoccupation with the self, accompanied by inflated self-admiration (bragging), grandiosity (acting like one is better than everyone else), entitlement (deserving more than everyone else), and attention-seeking (to validate their sense of superiority)
- Also: bragging/boasting, arrogance, sensitivity to criticism, low empathy, derogation of others, bullying (to make themselves feel elevated).
- distinguish it from egocentrism: an inability to see other people’s perspectives and understand other people (self-centeredness)
4
Q
What facets do people with moderate or low level of narcissism have?
A
At a moderate level (may be healthy): self serving bias; slightly unrealistically positive self-image; some drive to feel special.
At a low level: very modest; self-effacing.
5
Q
What is narcissistic personality disorder?
A
Extreme expressions of traits: A pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy
Accompanied by functional impairments, especially impairment in empathy
There is also malignant narcissism - narcissism combined with psychopathy (make other people suffer, violate their rights)
People with high levels of narcissism do not see the negatives in themselves therefore it is nearly impossible for them to seek treatment
6
Q
What are some things people high in narcissism display?
A
- may use more first-person singular pronouns (i.e., I-talk)
- look in the mirror more, watch recordings of themselves more often.
- interrupt others more during conversation.
But also… - become distressed and aggressive when insulted. (because their sense of superiority is fabricated and it’s vulnerable)
- make good first impressions
- boasting was found to be highly correlated (.59) with states/territories winning
7
Q
How are people high in narcissism like on social media?
A
- are more active on social media (inc. Instagram, TikTok).
- post more about their accomplishments; take/post more selfies.
- enjoy debating more on social media; also trolling (esp. men). trolling: someone who intentionally upsets others online.
- receive more likes on their posts.
8
Q
What is inferiority complex, according to Alfred Adler (1930)?
A
Inferiority Complex: lack of self-worth resulting from early development; low self-esteem.
Overcompensate through “striving for superiority” – making others unhappy.
– Foundation for narcissism.
9
Q
What is the narcissistic paradox?
A
Although narcissists appear to have high self-esteem, they have doubts over their self-worth.
Therefore, narcissism is a complex defence mechanism.
“Narcissism is not self-love, it is self-loathing in disguise.”
Narcissists may have lower implicit self-esteem. They display insecurities if asked questions in a certain way.
- Explicit self-esteem is asking people to rate themselves on a Likert scale, whereas implicit self-esteem is unconscious manifestations of self-esteem, e.g., associating positive words with letters of their names, people’s sizes of signatures.
10
Q
What is the difference between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism?
A
Both involve self-centeredness, entitlement, disregard for others,
and interpersonal antagonism/disagreeableness
Grandiose narcissism involves high self-esteem, social dominance, exhibitionism, overestimation of abilities; fantasies of superiority.
Correlated w/ high extraversion, low agreeableness, aggressiveness.
Vulnerable narcissism involves insecurities, hypersensitivity and vulnerability, anxiety, avoidance, hypervigilance for criticism.
Correlated w/ high neuroticism, low extraversion, low agreeableness.
- more likely to experience suicidal ideation, constant concerns of what other people are thinking about them
11
Q
Which areas are narcissists more likely to succeed in?
A
- show business
- leadership
- job interviews
- initial interactions
But narcissists lose popularity over time
12
Q
What are narcissistic leaders like?
A
Narcissists tend to seek out political positions more than non-narcissists.
Although they may be more successful, they’re more likely to abuse their powers and are at higher risk of impeachment
Biographical analyses of American presidents have concluded that most (if not all) have been moderate-to-high in grandiose narcissism
According to psychologists, most (if not all) dictators and
authoritarian leaders throughout history have embodied traits consistent with malignant narcissism
example毛泽东？？
13
Q
How do narcissists behave interpersonally?
A
- divide people to gain power over them.
- use threats and lies to influence people’s emotions/behaviours.
- distort reality by arguing fiction is fact; engage in gaslighting.
（煤气灯效应是一种心理操纵的形式，其方法是一个人或团体隐秘地让受害人逐渐开始怀疑自己，使其质疑自己的记忆力、感知力或判断力，其结果是导致受害者产生认知失调和其他变化，例如低下的自我尊重等。）
14
Q
What is Erik Erikson’s ego development suggesting about the origin of narcissism?
A
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Focused on ego development over life.
Identified common/necessary tensions inherent to each stage of development.
Goal: struggle with tensions and grow, achieve ego integrity – acceptance of oneself and one’s life.
According to Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development,
narcissism would most likely result from a sense of inferiority during the ‘Industry vs. Inferiority’ stage (ages 4–12). Kindergarten and Elementary school
* A lack of competence; not feeling “good enough.”
Example: Donald Trump’s dad
15
Q
What are the 8 stages of ego development?
A
- Trust vs. Mistrust: The first stage, which begins at birth and lasts until a baby is about 18 months old
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: The second stage, which occurs between 18 months and about 3 years
- Initiative vs. Guilt: The third stage, which occurs between about 3 and 6 years
- Industry vs. Inferiority: The fourth stage, which occurs between about 5 and 11 years
- Identity vs. Role Confusion: The fifth stage, which occurs between about 12 and 19 years
- Intimacy vs. Isolation: The sixth stage
- Generativity vs. Stagnation: The seventh stage
- Integrity vs. Despair: The eighth stage
16
Q
What is the object relations theory?
A
Examines the process of developing one’s psyche in relation to others in the environment.
Internalized representations of parents (unconscious) become basis for relating to others in life. (similar to attachment development)
First social attachments form prototypes for future relationships.
Possible introjection (the unconscious process of internalizing the beliefs, attitudes, or values of others, often significant figures like parents, and incorporating them into one’s own sense of self, essentially “taking in” aspects of another person’s personality as if they were your own)
17
Q
According to the object relations theory, where does narcissism arise from?
A
Narcissism arises from the internalized dilemma of whether the parent is good or bad. Failure to solve this dilemma leads to low self-worth and splitting.
- They grow up seeing themselves as all good because they don’t believe a person can be both good and bad.
Splitting – extreme, black-and-white thinking (a defence).
Individuals see themselves as “all good” and others as either “all good” or “all bad.”
This protects the narcissist’s inflated self-image.
18
Q
Who introduced the attachment theory? What is the theory about?
A
John Bowlby (1969)
Infants must form a healthy relationship with a caregiver for successful development.
Main factors in parenting are sensitivity and responsiveness.
19
Q
What are the four types of attachment in children?
A
- Secure well-adjusted, trusting; caregivers responsive to needs
- Anxious-Ambivalent anxious, clingy; caregivers inconsistent
- vulnerable narcissism - Avoidant uninterested, emotionally distant; caregivers neglectful
- grandiose narcissism - Disorganized erratic; caregivers depressed, traumatized, or abusive
20
Q
What are four styles of adult attachment?
A
- Secure Style comfortable w/ intimacy; autonomous & dependent
- Preoccupied (Ambivalent) Style crave intimacy; worried about partners
- emotional instability - Dismissive-Avoidant Style minimize closeness; intimacy = loss of independence.
- correlated with grandiose narcissism - Fearful-Avoidant Style want relationship, but difficulty trusting others
- Vulnerable narcissism is correlated with 2 and 4
21
Q
What parenting styles are associated with narcissism?
A
Authoritarian, which insists on perfection, winning, and toughness.
- children display narcissism to compensate for the feeling of not being enough
Neglectful, which can result in a lack of empathy and warmth.
- narcissism to compensate for the lack of empathy and warmth
Permissive/Indulgent, which can promote entitled attitudes.
- The child learns in a direct way that they are the best no matter what
Karen Horney (1942) agreed that narcissism involves low self-esteem.
Suggested that indulgence (via over-permissive parents) in childhood leads to excessive self-idealization.
22
Q
What is the study done by Brummenlman et al. (2015) suggest about childhood narcissism (age 7-12) and parental behaviours?
A
Methods:
Children completed questionnaires assessing narcissism (e.g., “kids like me deserve something
extra”) and self-esteem (e.g., “kids like me are happy with themselves as a person”).
Parents completed questionnaires to assess parental overvaluation (e.g., “my child is more special than other children”) and parental warmth (e.g., “I let my child know I love him/her”).
Results: Support for social learning theory — Higher narcissism was predicted by parental overvaluation, not by lack of warmth.
- lack of warmth predicted low self-esteem in children
23
Q
Is narcissism rising among young people?
A
In studies of American college students…
Meta-analysis by Twenge et al. (2008):
From 1982 – 2006: 30% increase in those
scoring above the mean on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) (N = 16,475).
Meta-analysis by Konrath, O’Brien, & Tsing (2016):
From 1979 – 2009: 48% drop in empathic concern, 34% drop in perspective-taking (N = 13,737)
Potential reasons:
competition over resources
materialism to make oneself look superior in front of others
24
Q
What did Kaufman find out about characteristics of self-actualizers?
A
Kaufman (2018) – Developed a 30-item self-report measure of 10 characteristics of self-actualizers proposed by Maslow.
Those reporting more characteristics of self-actualization…
Were more motivated by growth, exploration, and love of humanity than
the fulfillment of deficiencies in basic needs.
Reported greater life satisfaction, self-acceptance, positive relations, environmental mastery, personal growth, autonomy, purpose in life, and
self-transcendent experiences.
Displayed more creativity across multiple domains of achievement.
Even in early adulthood, the traits of self-actualization are normally distributed.
25
What is Henry Murray's Theory of Needs?
Primary Needs: Based on biological demands, such as
the need for oxygen, food, and water.
Secondary (‘Psychogenic’) Needs: Not always necessary
for survival, but essential for psychological well-being.
e.g., ambition needs, needs to defend status (dominance), needs related to social power, social affection needs
26
What are the big three motives (needs) according to McClelland?
1. Need for Achievement (growth, success, competence)
2. Need for POWER (having an impact on others)
- Agency
3. Need for Intimacy (warmth, closeness, communication)
- Communion
Individual differences exist in people's degrees of needs
Effective leaders typically have high needs for power and affiliation/intimacy
27
What does humanistic psychology focus?
Emphasis is on the conscious awareness of needs, choices,
and personal responsibility
It also focuses on potential and growth:
Human need for growth and
realizing one’s full potential.
Focus on growth instead of deficiency; human nature is positive.
28
Who was a famous co-founder of Humanistic Psychology?
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
American psychologist and professor.
Stressed the importance of focusing on the positive qualities in people.
Main Work: Hierarchy of Needs, self- actualization, peak experiences, psychology of religious experiences.
29
What are in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?
From Low to High:
1. Physiological Needs (Air, water, food, shelter, clothing)
2. Safety Needs (Personal security, financial security, health, safety against accidents & threats)
3. Belongingness/Love Needs (Sense of belonging, acceptance in social groups)
4. Esteem Needs (Self-esteem, self-respect, valued &
accepted, recognition)
5. Self-Actualization Needs (Drive towards creativity, realization of full potential, becoming true self)
* Lower needs must be (mostly) satisfied before higher-order needs can be met.
* Motivations from multiple
levels can be observed in the
same behaviour.
*A need can be skipped if:
(1) It has been met before; (2) If one believes it could be met.
The first four needs are deficit needs, self-actualization needs are "being" needs, people are constantly driven to do more and more to fulfill their potential
Once the deficit needs are satisfied, they don't have a strong impact on your emotion/behaviour, but they are still important
30
How does Maslow define self-actualization?
According to Maslow, this is the final level of psychological development; achieved only when all basic and mental needs are fulfilled and full potential dominates the individual.
Importantly, self-actualization is growth-motivated. (vs. deficiency-motivated)
Maslow also described self-actualization in terms of living life according to one’s true self.
The process of becoming “more and more what one idiosyncratically is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming” (Maslow, 1970, p. 46)
31
What is the concept of false self?
“Other people's expectations can become of overriding importance, overlaying or
contradicting the original sense of self, the one connected to the very roots of one's being.”
Heinz Kohut – Narcissism serves as a defensive armour.
32
What are 15 characteristics of self-actualizers? (not expected for memorization, good if you can name a few)
1. Efficient perception of reality (applying bias minimally, high level of self-awareness)
2. Acceptance of themselves and others
3. Spontaneous and natural
4. Problem focus / task centering
5. Affinity for solitude / autonomy
6. Independence from culture and environment
7. Continued freshness of appreciation
8. More frequent peak experiences
9. Genuine desire to help the human race
10. Deep ties with relatively few people
11. Democratic values
12. Ability to discriminate between means and ends
13. Philosophical sense of humour
14. Creativity
15. Resistance to enculturation (the tendency for the individual to be fairly independent free-thinkers)
33
34
What are peak experiences?
Transpersonal and ecstatic states characterized by feelings of euphoria, harmonization, interconnectedness, and deep
meaning; contribute to the self-actualization process.
Individuals describe these experiences (and their revelations) as possessing a mystical, spiritual, or overtly religious quality
35
Who is another co-founder of Humanistic Psychology?
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) focused on ways to self-actualize.
People are intrinsically good; require unconditional positive regard.
Person-centred approach to therapy.
36
What is the difference between actualized vs. fully-functioning, according to Carl Rogers?
A healthy, ‘actualized’ personality according to Rogers, has a congruence between one's sense of self and one's ideal self
Rogers’ Fully Functioning Person:
Someone who is on their way to self-actualization; in touch with their deepest, innermost feelings & desires; understands their emotions;
trusts their instincts & urges.
37
Are there additional needs besides Maslow's needs?
Aesthetic Needs:
Appreciation of and search for beauty, balance, etc.
Cognitive Needs:
Knowledge, meaning, self- awareness, etc.
38
What is transcendence according to Maslow's final consideration?
In his final years, Maslow wrote of an additional, final level to his hierarchy of needs.
* Self-transcendence needs: Dedicating oneself to a higher goal; helping others to self-actualize.
He argued that the self only actualizes by giving itself to some higher goal or purpose, as in altruism and spirituality.
39
What are three main aspects of psychological maturity?
self-directedness (autonomy), cooperativeness (empathy, belonging), and self-transcendence
40
How do some people use agency for the sake of communion?
Whereas most people use their agency to attain more agency...
Those who dedicate themselves to the betterment of others actualize their self-interest (agency) by promoting the interests of others (communion).
Frimer et al. (2011) – Canadian moral exemplars used their agency to further both agency and communion equally.
41
What is one criticism of Maslow?
He developed his hierarchy of needs based on firsthand observations of the Blackfoot Nation in Alberta, a highly successful and developed Indigenous society, but he didn't really give credit to the Blackfoot people.
Indigenous's perspective is (from bottom to top):
- Self-actualization
- Community actualization
- Community prosperity
“Maslow’s hierarchy as typically presented is white-washed, stripped of its
roots in Indigenous knowledge, and firmly entrenched in the Western
epistemology of individualism. The pinnacle of human development is
actualization of self, not community, society, or generational legacy.”
42
What is the Indigenous kinship worldview?
Consistent with Maslow’s notion of self-transcendence, the Indigenous “kinship worldview” emphasizes deep relationships and interconnectedness between all living beings (e.g., nature)
* Every being has responsibilities to care for and respect others.
* Identity is rooted in relationships, not individualism
43
What does the hierarchy of needs in collectivistic cultures look like?
From bottom to top:
- Belonging needs
- Physiological needs
- Safety needs
- Self-actualization needs (giving back to one's community and people)
- Some form of independence is still needed to get to that point of actualization. e.g., getting away from one's culture for a while
44
Why does Geller argue that Maslow didn't get the actualization in Western society right?
Geller (1982) suggested:
Even when the deficit needs are met (e.g., overcoming hunger, gaining financial security), many people, especially in the West,
suffer from “alienation, boredom, apathy, resignation, cynicism, joylessness, meaningless, and despair."
He argued that people needed those sufferings in order to stifle growth.
45
What are five postulates of Westen's contemporary psychoanalysis?
● Classical psychoanalysis, developed by Freud in the early 1900s, is considered outdated by some modern scholars.
● Drew Westen (1998) argues that Freud’s ideas should be considered outdated but acknowledges that some have been revised and incorporated into contemporary psychoanalysis. ● Westen's five postulates of contemporary psychoanalysis :
1. The unconscious still plays a role but is not as dominant as Freud proposed.
2. Behavior reflects compromises between conflicting mental processes, including emotions and thoughts.
3. Childhood relationships significantly influence personality development and adult attachment styles.
4. Mental representations of the self shape interactions with others.
5. Personality development extends beyond sexual and aggressive impulses, emphasizing social maturity and relationships.
46
What do researchers suggest about the validity of repression?
● There is controversy over the validity of motivated repression.
○ Erdelyi & Goldberg (1979) : Repression has overwhelming evidence.
○ Holmes (1990) : No experimental research supports repression.
● Elizabeth Loftus (2003) , a key researcher in recovered memories:
○ Examined cases where individuals suddenly recalled past trauma.
○ Some memories were true, but others were false memories (later recanted).
○ We should not assume all recovered memories are true or false.
47
What are some key factors influencing false memories?
1. Reading popular books (primes false memory): provides strong message that make people conclude they are abused even when they are not.
● Loftus (1993) Experiment :
○ Leading questions can distort memory.
○ Subjects were shown a car accident video falsely remembered a stop sign when questioned suggestively.
2. Behavior of the therapist
■ Therapists' influence : Some push childhood trauma diagnoses without evidence. (强行贴标签，导致错误记忆）
■ Hypnosis : Used in therapy for clients to recall chilhood memory but does not improve memory accuracy (increase false memory) .
■ Hypnotized witnesses have no better accuracy than non-hypnotized ones.
3. Hypnosis, suggestive interviewing, interpretation of symptoms as signs of past traumas, dream interpretation, and authority pressure
- Imagination Inflation Effect :
- Imagining an event increases the likelihood of falsely remembering it.
- Example: People were led to believe and imagine they shook hands with Bugs Bunny at Disneyland.
48
How can false memories form?
● Misinformation Paradigm ( Loftus, 2003 ):
○ Exposure to misleading details can implant false memories .
○ Example: Memory of highly stressful events can still be altered ( Morgan et al., 2012 ).
● Therapists and Confirmatory Bias :
○ Some therapists seek evidence of childhood trauma based on symptoms rather than actual events.
■ Confirmation bias- Look for the evidence that confirms their belief
○ False memories can be constructed when patients attempt to "fill in gaps" to fit a suggested narrative.
- Therapist and patient may construct a shared but potentially false reality of trauma.
● Balancing the False Memory Debate :
○ Not all recovered memories are false —many genuine cases exist.
○ Surveys show childhood abuse is real and prevalent :
■ Statistics Canada (2017) : 26% of Canadians experienced physical abuse, 8% experienced sexual abuse.
49
Discuss contemporary views on the unconscious.
● John Bargh’s Research (2005, 2017)
○ Experimental studies show people unconsciously adopt behaviors related to words they are exposed to.
○ Example: Participants exposed to rude words acted more aggressively in a staged scenario.
○ Suggests that unconscious processes influence behavior, but not necessarily in the way Freud proposed.
● Motivated Unconscious vs. Cognitive Unconscious
○ The motivated unconscious aligns with classical psychoanalysis, where unconscious thoughts actively influence behavior.
○ Kihlstrom (1999): Information can enter the unconscious without awareness.
○ Example: The phrase “Buy a Coke” flashed briefly on a screen might unconsciously prime recognition of "Coke" in a later task.
○ Priming makes information more accessible but does not necessarily drive behavior.
○ Research suggests subliminal messages do not strongly influence behavior (e.g., music promoting violence does not make teens act violently).
○ Unconscious influence is subtle and does not override conscious decision-making.
○ The cognitive unconscious suggests that unconscious information can enter memory without conscious awareness but does not operate independently
● Freud vs. Modern Cognitive Psychology
○ Freud’s unconscious: A chaotic mix of irrational drives and repressed desires .
○ Modern view: Unconscious is structured, rule-governed, and influences behavior in a rational way .
○ Bargh & Morsella (2008, 2010): The unconscious works “under the hood” to process information and guide behavior subtly.
50
Which view of the unconscious is supported by research on subliminal perception（潜意识感知）?
the ego view
the motivated view
the Freudian view
the cognitive view
The cognitive view
Although the unconscious is still viewed as having an influence on behaviour, thoughts, and feelings, that influence is seen as more bounded, rule governed, and specific, as in unconscious priming, than was taught by Freud.
51
What is ego psychology and how is it relevant to identity development?
● Freud’s psychoanalysis focused on id psychology , emphasizing instincts and unconscious desires.
● Anna Freud and later psychoanalysts shifted focus to the ego , which plays a crucial role in constructive psychological functions.
● Erik Erikson expanded on Freud’s work, emphasizing ego psychology , which focuses on mastering the environment, setting goals, and forming identity.
● Identity formation is central to psychological development.
○ Identity crisis (Erikson) occurs when an individual struggles to establish a stable sense of self.
○ Identity is a narrative that evolves but remains relatively stable over time .
○ Key events such as graduation, marriage, career changes can reshape identity.
○ Moratorium : A period of exploration before committing to an identity (common in young adulthood).
○ Identity foreclosure : Accepting an identity without exploration (e.g., adopting parents’ values without question).
52
Describe Erik Erikson's eight stages of development.
● Unlike Freud, who emphasized early childhood, Erikson proposed that development continues throughout life .
● Each stage is marked by a psychosocial conflict that must be resolved for healthy development. ○ Not psychosexual like Freud
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)
○ Infants rely on caregivers to meet basic needs. ○ Successful resolution: Sense of trust and security in the world.
○ Failure: Fear, insecurity, and difficulty trusting others.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood)
○ Children begin asserting independence.
○ Child feels shame if parents inhibit the autonomy
○ Encouragement fosters autonomy; overcontrol leads to self-doubt.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood)
○ Children take initiative in activities and accomplishing goals
○ Encouragement fosters confidence; excessive restrictions lead to guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age)
○ With enough successful experience→ builds believe in their strength.
○ Failure or excessive criticism can lead to feelings of inferiority.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
○ Adolescents explore values, career goals, and self-definition.
○ Who am I
○ Success leads to a stable identity ; failure results in role confusion .
○ Some experience identity moratorium (exploring options before committing) or identity foreclosure (committing without exploration).
○ Some develop negative identity (identity founded on undesirable social roles
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
○ Focus on forming meaningful relationships with others.
○ Success: Strong, committed relationships.
○ Failure: Loneliness and isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
○ Concern shifts to contributing to society (raising children, career, mentorship).
○ Success: Feeling of purpose; failure: Stagnation and feeling unfulfilled.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)
○ Reflection on life’s accomplishments. i. Did I accomplish what I wanted in life?
○ Integrity : Satisfaction and acceptance of life.
○ Despair : Regret and fear of death.
53
How do Erikson's stages apply to survivors of the Holocaust?
● Peter Suedfeld (2005) studied Holocaust survivors using Erikson’s developmental stages.
● Data sources :
○ Biographical interviews (30-50 years after the Holocaust).
○ Archival interviews from 1946.
● Findings by stage :
○ Trust vs. Mistrust : Many survivors developed mistrust , due to betrayal by governments, neighbors, and friends.
○ Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt : The 1946 group showed less shame , possibly due to post-war resilience.
○ Initiative vs. Guilt : Positive outcomes linked to purpose and self-direction ; negative outcomes linked to self-doubt .
○ Industry vs. Inferiority : Survivors took active roles in survival, leading to greater self-efficacy.
○ Identity vs. Role Confusion : Strong Jewish identity and family bonds (Identity) helped maintain resilience.
○ Generativity vs. Stagnation : Many sought to create a positive legacy for their children .
54
Who was Karen Horney and what were her contributions to psychoanalysis?
● Early ego psychologist and critic of Freud’s male-centered theories .
Horney stressed the point that, although biology determines sex, cultural norms are used to determine what behaviours are acceptable for a typical female and a typical male in that culture.
● Criticism of Freud :
○ Rejected penis envy , arguing that gender roles stem from social and cultural power structures , not biology.
■ Penis is more of a symbol of social power, girl want penis because they realize gender affects social power
○ Introduced the “fear of success” concept—some women worry success may damage their relationships.
● Cultural influences on personality :
○ Double standard : Society imposes different moral expectations for men and women.
○ Gender roles are cultural constructs , not biologically determined.
● Professional impact :
○ She was expelled from the New York Psychoanalytic Institute for her progressive views.
○ Founded the American Institute for Psychoanalysis , focusing on interpersonal psychoanalysis .
55
How are narcissistic people like?
● Most of us have moderate level of self-esteem ● Self-serving bias : People credit successes to themselves but blame others for failures .
● Narcissistic paradox :
○ Narcissists appear confident but are actually deeply insecure and crave validation .
○ Grandiose narcissism
■ dominant, extraverted, aggressive, feels one is more important than others)
○ Vulnerable narcissism (insecure, sensitive to criticism).
- Features for both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism
- Concert, self-indulgence, and disregard of others, identified entitlement and self-importance
- High level of narcissism are correlated
● Narcissism and aggression :
○ Bushman & Baumeister (1998) : Narcissists react aggressively when criticized.
■ Experient: participants being insulted→ more aggressive later on
● Social media and narcissism :
○ High narcissism rate their own performance better
○ High narcissism correlates with selfies and self-promotion on Instagram.
○ Grandiose narcissists receive more social validation than vulnerable narcissists.
● Narcissism vs. Self-Esteem :
○ Narcissists are vulnerable to criticism , while people with high self-esteem are more resilient .
56
What is the object relations theory？
● A modern adaptation of Freud’s psychoanalysis that emphasizes social relationships rather than sexuality in personality development.
● Highlights the importance of early parent-child relationships , particularly the mother-child bond ○ Assumption 1 : The social relationships a child forms with significant external figures (such as parents or caregivers) are more influential in shaping their personality and emotional development than their internal thoughts, desires, or fantasies .
○ Assumption 2 : The child internalizes mental representations of significant figures ( object relations ).
● A secure and nurturing early relationship leads to positive expectations about future relationships.
● A lack of proper caregiving can cause difficulty in trust and relationship-building in adulthood.
● Disruptions in attachment during childhood may lead to emotional and psychological issues in later life.
57
What does Harlow's Monkey Experiment suggest about early childhood attachment?
● Infant monkeys raised with cloth and wire mothers preferred the cloth mother for comfort, despite food being provided by the wire mother. ● This demonstrated that emotional security and warmth are crucial for healthy development.
● Monkeys deprived of maternal bonding showed social and emotional difficulties later in life.
58
What does Bowlby's attachment theory suggest?
● Attachment to a primary caregiver in the first six months is crucial.
● Observed that some infants display separation anxiety , reacting differently when left alone:
○ Some trust their caregiver will return.
○ Others become anxious or distressed .
59
Describe the attachment styles identified in Mary Ainsworth's strange situation experiment.
1. Secure Attachment (66%)
○ Infants explore confidently and are happy when their caregiver returns.
○ They trust their caregivers.
○ Mothers provide affection and stimulation to their babies, are more responsive
2. Avoidant Attachment (20%)
○ Infants are emotionally detached from the caregiver upon their return.
○ Mothers are less attentive and responsive
○ Shows emotional detachment and difficulty in seeking support.
3. Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment
○ Infants display clinginess, mixed emotions, and distress when the caregiver leaves.
i. Desiring mother, but when hugged, showed resistant
○ They are difficult to soothe , seeking both comfort and resisting it .
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What was the fourth attachment style later identified by Main & Solomon in 1986?
Disorganized attachment:
● Infants show erratic and conflicting behaviors , often caused by trauma or neglect .
○ Combination of anxious, avoidant, and angry behavior
● Caregivers may be abusive or suffering from their own psychological issues .
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What are the long-term impact of attachment styles?
● Attachment styles are called Working Models for later adult relationships
● Secure infants: More likely to form healthy relationships in adulthood.
● Insecure infants : Struggle with trust, emotional regulation, and relationships .
● Avoidant: Associate with grandiose narcissism in adulthood
● Anxious Ambivalent: Associate with vulnerable narcissism in adulthood
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How do attachment styles in childhood influence adult relationships?
● Secure Adults
○ Trust others easily, and develop close relationships.
○ Warm, and supportive in relationships.
● Avoidant Adults (Dismissing Attachment)
○ Fear intimacy, struggle with trust.
○ Emotionally distant and avoid commitment.
● Anxious-Ambivalent Adults (Preoccupied Attachment)
○ Crave closeness but fear abandonment.
○ Vulnerability and uncertainty regarding relationships
○ Display high emotional neediness and require constant reassurance.
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What is the four-category model of attachment according to Bartholomew?
● Fearful-Avoidant (Disorganized Attachment)
○ Desire closeness but also fear rejection .
○ Often linked to trauma or past abusive relationships .
two dimensions in this model:
1. attachment-related anxiety (the extent to which an adult worries over whether their partner loves them)
2. attachment-related avoidance (the extent to which an adult feels they can trust and depend on others)
- Secure
- Preoccupied
- Dismissing
- Fearful-avoidant adult attachment
* Dismissing/avoidant - want to minimize closeness due to high attachment avoidance
* Fearful-avoidant - desire closeness but is uncomfortable with it, experiencing fear and distress associated with romantic relationships due to high levels of both attachment-related anxiety and attachment-related avoidance
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What is the impact of attachment styles on adulthood romantic relationships and behaviours?
● Secure attachment: Stable, trusting, mutually supportive relationships.
○ Supportive to their partners and seeks support
○ Show best adjustments
● Avoidant attachment: Fear of commitment, emotional distance
○ They tend to believe love never lasts
○ Distance themselves from others when stressed
● Anxious attachment: Clinginess, jealousy, and insecurity .
○ Short-lived romantic relationship, fall in love easily
● Fearful-avoidant: Mixed behaviors, fear of intimacy and abandonment .
○ Showed abusive behavior
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Is attachment style stable? How can it change over time?
● Attachment styles can change over time with new experiences and relationships .
● Positive relationships can help revise early insecure attachments into secure ones (Fraley, 2007).
● Some studies suggest attachment exists on a dimensional rather than fixed categories .
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What are motives? How do they differ from needs?
● Motives are internal states that drive behaviour toward specific goals.
● They are often caused by a deficit (lack of something), e.g., hunger due to lack of food.
● Motives vary in type and intensity :
○ Hunger vs. Thirst – different biological needs.
○ Achievement vs. Affiliation – psychological needs.
● Needs create motives, and when satisfied, reduce tension.
● Example : A hungry person might perceive objects like clouds as food sandwiches.
Procedure (example):
deficit(had no food today)-- need (for food) -- motive (hunger)-- thoughts/fantasies (thinking about food, fantasizing a big meal, perceiving a rock as a loaf of bread) OR behaviours intended to satisfy the need (go to grocery shopping, bring it home, cook it)
Needs tend to arise from deficits, and motives arouse and direct behaviour in a way that intends to satisfy the need and fulfill the underlying deficit.
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What are several reasons behind motives in the intrapsychic domain?
● Motives exist within the mind and psyche , influencing perception, thought, and action.
● They can be unconscious , meaning people may not fully understand their own desires.
● Psychologists use projective techniques (e.g., Thematic Apperception Test, TAT) to study unconscious motives.
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In what ways does motivational psychology share ideas with dispositional psychology?
● Motivational psychologists share ideas with dispositional psychologists :
1. People differ from one another in the type and strength of motives.
2. These differences are Measurable in motivation levels.
3. Stable over time and affect life outcomes (e.g., success at work).
4. Motivation is studied at the intersection of intrapsychic and dispositional psychology .
5. Motives provide answers to why people do what they do.
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What is Henry Murray's modern theory of needs about?
● Henry Murray developed a modern theory of motivation :
○ Defined Need as a “potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances.”
■ Need organize perception and compel action.
■ A state of tension and satisfying the need reduces the tension
○ Distinguished between :
■ Primary (viscerogenic) needs – biological (food, water, air, sex).
■ Secondary (psychogenic) needs – psychological (affiliation, power).
● Each Need associate with:
○ A specific desire
○ A particular emotion
○ A specific act tendencies
Needs Hierarchy & Dynamics :
○ Different people have different strengths of needs (e.g., high dominance, low affiliation).
high dominance + low affiliation = bossy, disagreeable, simply exercise power over others without regard to their feelings
high dominance + high affiliation = effective leadership
○ Needs interact, influencing behaviour, this is called dynamic
■ The mutual influence within a person
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What are the categories of needs according to Murray?
1. Materialistic Needs (物质需求): Acquisition and Order (获得和秩序)
2. Ambition Needs (抱负需求): Achievement and Recognition (成就和认可)
3. Defend Status (维护地位): Infavoidance and Defendance (避免失败和自我防御)
4. Social Power (社会权力): Autonomy and Dominance (自主和支配)
5. Social Affection (社交情感): Affiliation and Nurturance (归属和养育)
6. Information Exchange (信息交换): Cognizance (认知)
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What does the term "press" refer to according to Murray?
Need-relevant aspects of the environment according to Henry Murray. A person’s need for intimacy, for example, won’t affect that person’s behaviour without an appropriate environmental press (such as the presence of friendly people).
● Murray introduced "Press" – environmental factors affecting needs.
○ People who needs more for affiliation might be more likely to notice people who are friendly.
● Two types of press:
○ Alpha press – objective reality (what actually happens).
○ Beta press – subjective perception (how someone interprets reality).
● Example : A smile from a stranger might be seen as friendly (high need for affiliation) or suspicious (low need for affiliation).
○ Objectively (Alpha) was the same, but Beta was different
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What is the definition of apperception? What do people use Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) for?
● Apperception : How people perceive ambiguous situations, influenced by their motives.
● TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) :
○ Participants interpret ambiguous black/white images by telling stories.
○ Used to assess unconscious motives (e.g., need for achievement, power, intimacy), defence mechanisms, attachment styles, and psychosexual stages
○ People with different needs will respond and create different stories
○ Helps distinguish between state levels (temporary needs) and trait levels (consistent personality traits).
■ State level- Momentary needs
■ Trait level- a person’s average tendency, average amount of specific need
○ Often measured with Muti-Motive Grid
● A newer method that combines TAT with self-report questionnaires .
● More structured and quantifiable assessment of motives .
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Is TAT valid? What are its strengths and limitations?
● Strengths :
○ Used in personality and motivation research .
○ Correlates with self-report assessments (e.g., Big Five personality traits).
● Criticism :
○ Low test-retest reliability (results may not be consistent over time).
○ Potential gender bias in image content.
○ Some argue that there is a low correlation between TAT scores and self-report measures on the same need.
- Poor internal test reliability (responses to one image may not correlate well with responses to another image)
- low and inconsistent correlations for university GPA and achievement test performances
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According to McClelland, what are the reasons behind why there is a low correlation between TAT results and questionnare responses?
1. TAT measures Implicit motivation
a. Based on needs (needs for power, intimacy, achievements so on)
b. Implicit, often reflected unconscious desires and unspoken needs through stories
c. Predicts long term outcomes
d. TAT was better predictor for long term outcomes (e.g., lifetime income, job level attained in an organization, number of publications achieved)
2. Questionnaires/self-reports measure Self-Attributed motivation
a. Conscious awareness of what is important
b. Better predictor or immediate and specific situations (e.g., grades in university courses, performance on ability tests)
75
Describe the need for achievement and characteristics of high nAch people.
Need for Achievement (nAch)
● Behavior motivated by the need for achievement has been a focus in psychology.
● It is one of the "Big Three" fundamental human motives.
● Studied extensively by David McClelland . Characteristics of High nAch Individuals
● Desire to do better, succeed, and feel competent (McClelland, 1985).
● Energized by challenge and variety .
● Associated with curiosity, interest, and exploratory behaviour .
● Satisfaction comes from both achieving and the process of achieving. Preference for Moderate Challenges
● In Trait levels, High nAch individuals prefer moderate levels of challenge :
○ Tasks that are too easy do not motivate them. ○ Tasks that are too difficult discourage them.
● Enjoys tasks they are personally responsible for the outcome, and prefer tasks with feedbacks available
● Studies on children (McClelland, 1958):
○ High nAch children prefer moderate challenges in games.
○ Low nAch children either pick very easy or impossible tasks.
● This preference extends into career choices (Koestner & McClelland, 1990). high nAch people choose majors of moderate difficulty level and careers of moderate difficulty too.
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Describe some more research findings associated with need for achievement.
Increasing the Need for Achievement
● Research links nAch with entrepreneurial success.
● Farmers with high nAch adopt new farming methods and increase productivity
● Self-employed individuals tend to have higher nAch than corporate employees
○ Drawn to careers with more risks and uncertainty
nAch in Different Contexts
● Blue-collar workers high in nAch show greater problem-solving initiative
● University students high in nAch:
○ Are more strategic in course selection .
○ Seek professor feedback before exams
Cultural Differences in Achievement Motivation
● North America :
○ High school students and parents prioritize academic success .
○ Some cheat to ensure high achievement
● Papua New Guinea :
○ Emphasizes community support over individual success
○ Achievement for personal gain is seen as vanity ○ Similar in a collectivistic culture
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What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
● Intrinsic Motivation :
○ Self-driven, based on enjoyment and interest . ○ More common among - canadian indian children
○ Leads to higher academic achievement (Guay, Ratelle, & Chanal, 2008).
● Extrinsic Motivation :
○ Motivated by rewards or social expectations .
○ More common among indian children
○ Less effective for long-term achievement.
● Acculturation and Motivation :
○ Indian-Canadian adolescents were more intrinsically motivated than those in India.
■ Intrinsic motivation correlated with higher academic success for them, but not for indian students.
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What are some gender differences observed in nAch?
● Earlier research (1950s-60s) focused on men.
● Women and men high in nAch share similar traits:
1. Prefer moderate challenge .
2. Take personal responsibility .
3. Seek feedback on performance .
● Major differences :
1. Career vs. Family :
Women high in nAch:
■ Achieve higher grades .
■ Delay starting a family.
2. Childhood Experiences :
■ High-achieving women had critical and demanding mothers .
■ High-achieving men had supportive parents
Competitive Achievement Differences
● Study on men and women competing in problem-solving tasks:
○ Performed equally well individually .
○ When given a choice to compete as a team , only 35% of women opted in (vs. 75% of men).
■ Suggests women avoid direct competition more often.
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How can we develop achievement motivation in children?
● Parental Influence on nAch :
1. Independence Training :
■ Strict toilet training in early childhood linked to higher nAch.
2. Setting Standards :
■ Parents should set but not exceed a child’s abilities
3. Recognizing Effort Over Ability :
■ Saying "You can do it if you try" is better than "You're smart" to encourage resilience. Attachment Style and Achievement
● Securely attached children develop higher nAch .
● They explore their environments more and learn new skills , seeing life as challenges rather than to fail.
Carol Dweck's Theory of Achievement Motivation
● Abilities are malleable, not fixed.
● Believing that effort leads to success fosters achievement.
● Study: Teaching a growth mindset to students helps improve grades
80
What is the need for power? How does it influence having an impact on others?
The second of the "Big Three" motives is based on the need for power—the desire to have an impact on (and sometimes control) other people. Conceptually, the need for power aligns with the concept of agency .
Impact on Others
● McClelland and his students, especially David Winter, studied the need for power ( nPow ).
● Winter (1973) defines nPow as a readiness or preference for having an impact on others.
● Fodor (2009) expands this definition: people high in nPow seek to impress, influence, or control others and be recognized for their power-oriented actions.
● Expressions of nPow include:
○ Forceful actions to influence or control. ○ Strong efforts to maintain control.
○ Displays of valued possessions.
● High-nPow individuals react strongly to how others respond to them—admiration, astonishment, or fear.
● Donhauser, Rösch, & Schultheiss (2015) found that high nPow individuals are faster at recognizing facial expressions of emotions, as they monitor others' reactions to gauge their dominance.
● The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is commonly used to assess nPow.
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What are some research findings on nPow?
● Studies show nPow correlates with:
○ Frequent arguments.
○ Leadership aspirations (e.g., student office elections).
○ Risk-taking behaviors (e.g., gambling).
○ Assertiveness and acquiring prestige possessions (Winter, 1973).
● Assor (1989) found that high-nPow individuals seek control over situations and people.
● Mason & Blankenship (1987) found that men high in nPow are more likely to be abusive in relationships.
● High-nPow individuals prefer low-status friends who do not threaten their prestige.
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Are there sex differences in nPow?
● No gender differences in average levels of nPow.
● However, high-nPow men (but not women) engage more in:
○ Impulsive and aggressive behaviors .
○ Frequent arguments and higher divorce rates. ○ Sexual exploitation and earlier sexual activity.
○ Alcohol-related violence.
● Responsibility training can reduce impulsive behaviors in high-nPow individuals.
- socialization experiences determine whether nPow would be expressed in maladaptive behaviours, not biological sex
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How is the need for Power related to people's health?
● High-nPow individuals do not handle frustration well and exhibit strong stress responses when their power is blocked ( power stress).
● Studies show:
○ University students high in nPow report frequent illnesses (e.g., colds, flu) when their power is inhibited
○ Prisoners high in nPow have weaker immune systems
○ Longitudinal studies link inhibited power motives to high blood pressure and hypertension
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How is the need for Power related to war, peace, and conflict?
● Winter (1993) analyzed 300 years of British Parliament speeches, finding:
○ Wars were preceded by increases in power-related imagery in speeches.
○ Peace negotiations were associated with decreases in power-related imagery.
● Similar patterns were found in British-German WWII diplomacy and U.S.-Soviet Cold War conflicts .
● Winter (2002) studied leadership motivation (e.g., U.S. presidents) and concluded that effective leaders balance power motivation with affiliation and achievement concerns .
Power and Conflict
● power imagery in political communications escalates conflicts .
○ Affiliative motives lead to diplomatic compromises . 亲和动机导致外交妥协。
○ Power motives result in fewer concessions .权力动机则导致较 少的让步。
○ Priming negotiators with affiliative themes increases willingness to compromise.
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What is the need for intimacy and how is it shown in connecting with others?
- The last of the "Big Three" motives is based on the desire for warm and fulfilling relationships . It aligns with communion
● Dan McAdams (1990) defines nInt as a recurrent preference for warm, close, and communicative interaction . (aka need for affiliation)
● People high in nInt:
○ Think about relationships often.
○ Experience positive emotions when around others.
○ Smile, laugh, and engage in eye contact .
○ Start conversations more frequently and write more letters .
● Unlike extraversion, nInt reflects sincere and deep connections rather than social dominance. ● 几个要好的朋友，不在于数量
● People high in nInt are often rated as:
○ Sincere, loving, non-dominant, and not self-centered .
● Leaders high in nInt are perceived as caring about their followers’ needs.
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What are some research findings on the need for intimacy?
○ nInt at age 30 predicts overall well-being at age 47.
○ Higher nInt is linked to happiness and life satisfaction for women .
○ High nInt is linked with less life strain for men
● Gender Differences :
○ No sex differences in overall levels of nInt.
○ However, women have a higher average nInt than men .
● Social Consequences of Low nInt :
○ individuals with high nInt but low social connection experience envy and indirect aggression .
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What is a humanistic approach to motivation?
● Emphasizes conscious awareness of needs, choice, and personal responsibility.
1. Emphasis on
a. Choice : Critical in human life, influencing career and relationships.
b. Need for growth and self-actualization
i. This is not a deficit, but a growth motive
● Responsibility : People take action to create meaningful lives (e.g., midlife crises and drastic life changes).
88
Describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
● Developed by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), outlining human needs in a hierarchy: 1. Physiological Needs : Basic survival needs (food, water, air, sleep, sex).
2. Safety Needs : Shelter, security, predictability.
3. Belongingness Needs : Social connections (family, friends, teams, churches).
■ Modern society provides fewer built-in social groups, leading to loneliness and alternative forms of belonging (e.g., gangs).
■ Important in an evolutionary perspective because people hunt and move in groups
4. Esteem Needs : Respect from others, self-esteem, and confidence.
■ Esteem from others: Wanted to be seen as competent by others
■ Self-esteem: feel good about self
5. Self-Actualization : Fulfilling one's potential and true self.
■ Individuals seeking fulfillment often have "peak experiences."
■ Less doubt about lives
6. Self-Transcendence (Added later): Extending beyond oneself through spirituality or altruism.
● Satisfied lower ones before the higher ones
● Lower-level needs (physiological, safety) are more pressing than higher-level needs.
○ Will be less strong and urgent
● Motivation for higher needs is weaker and easily disrupted.
● People often work on multiple needs simultaneously
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Define peak experience, flow, and eutotelic personality.
● Peak Experience is a momentary feeling of extreme wonder and vision.
○ Feeling of euphoria
○ Contribute to self-actualization
○ Occurs in sexual, philosophical, or intellectual insights
● Flow : Deep immersion in an activity, losing track of time and self-consciousness.
○ Function in fullest capacity
○ Situation is balanced between challenge and one’s skills
- correlated with high conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience
● Autotelic Personality自得其乐的人格 : People who frequently seek flow states, driven by curiosity and intrinsic motivation.
● Flow occurs in activities requiring active participation (e.g., sports, writing, problem-solving).
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What are some research findings on Maslow's theory? Are there cultural variations in hierarchy of needs?
● Empirical studies support hierarchical needs but also show individual variations.
● Studies show lower needs create stronger emotional responses when unmet.
○ Participants were more upset when lower needs were not met
○ But when meeting higher need, participants report feeling better (gaining self-esteem→ happier than just having enough to eat
● No direct correlation between self-actualization and happiness.
Cultural Variations in Hierarchy of Needs
● The model is criticaized for only relevant in western culture
● Western Model : Individualistic, emphasizing self-actualization.
● Eastern Model :
Collectivist, placing belongingness at the base of the hierarchy
○ Such as China, belonging for needs is at the bottom, no esteem needs
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How does the evolutionary psychology perspective add on to the hierarchy of needs?
● Reformulated by Kenrick et al. to incorporate survival and reproduction.
● Adds mate acquisition, mate retention, and parenting as higher-level needs.
● Suggests self-actualization is not essential for biological success but remains important for well-being.
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Describe the characteristics of a self-actualizing person.
○ Efficient perception of reality ○ Acceptance of self, others, and nature
○ Spontaneity and simplicity
○ Problem-centered (rather than ego-centered)
○ Independence and autonomy
○ Continued freshness of appreciation
○ Profound interpersonal relationships
○ Democratic character structure
○ Creativeness
○ Philosophical sense of humor
● Ordinary People Can Self-Actualize : Maslow emphasized it is possible for everyday people—not just extraordinary historical figures—to achieve self-actualization.
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What is Barry Kaufman's contemporary measure of self-actualization?
● Development : Scott Barry Kaufman created a 30-item questionnaire to measure self-actualization, validated through factor analyses.
● Findings :
○ People scoring high on self-actualization are motivated by growth, exploration, and love of humanity.
○ They tend to show higher well-being, life satisfaction, deeper relationships, environmental mastery, and purpose in life.
○ Correlations with personality traits: More openness to experience, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (though findings vary).
○ Some differences from Maslow’s original model, suggesting that self-actualization might not always align perfectly with Maslow’s initial list of traits.
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What is Carl Rogers' person-centered theory about?
● View of Human Nature :
○ People are basically good and motivated by an inherent “actualizing tendency.”
○ This actualizing tendency drives us to develop our potentials and become fully functioning.
● Fully Functioning Person :
○ Lives in harmony with the “actualizing tendency.”
○ Is open to new experiences, trusts oneself, and has a sense of freedom in thoughts and actions.
○ Moves away from worrying about others’ approval and toward satisfying personal needs and growth.
95
Distinguish between the conditions of worth and unconditional positive regard.
● Positive Regard :
○ We born need to be loved by others
○ Children often learn they are loved or valued only if they meet certain conditions (e.g., good grades, pleasing parents).
■ Called conditions of worth
○ Leads to seeking approval from others, distorting one’s own experiences to maintain others’ acceptance.
■ They thus do what they think others want, losing self-actualization motives
● Unconditional Positive Regard :
○ Accepting and valuing a person without requiring particular behaviors or achievements.
○ Allows individuals to develop authentically, trusting themselves rather than constantly seeking external approval.
○ Allows one to trust and follow their own thinking and feeling
○ If given unconditional positive regard, they more easily become fully functioning and self-actualizing.
● Anxiety
○ Result of experience not fit with one’s self-perception
○ Distortion
■ A defence mechanism in response to anxiety
■ Mofify experience rather their self-image
● E.g.: claim exam was not fair
● EQ and Self-actualizing
○ Emotional intelligence correlates with self-actualizing tendencies.
○ Possible Barriers :
■ Lack of opportunity or encouragement.
■ Too much emphasis on external measures of success rather than personal growth.
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What is the goal of person-centered therapy?
● Goal : Help clients return to their innate actualizing tendency by providing a growth-promoting climate of genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.
● Never offering client interpretations of their problem
● 3 Core conditions :
○ Genuine acceptance
○ Empathy understanding : Deep understanding of the client’s perspective.
■ Simply listens and reflects back
○ Unconditional Positive Regard : Non-judgmental acceptance of the client.
■ Listens to the client
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What is the importance of empathy in therapy?
● Importance in Therapy :
○ Rogers identified empathy as a core condition for effective therapy.
○ Empathy helps clients feel understood and fosters personal growth.
● Research Findings :
○ Some people are naturally more empathetic, but empathy can also be developed with training (e.g., peer counseling courses).
○ Studies show measurable increases in empathetic ability with practice.
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What are the broader impacts of Carl Rogers and Maslow?
● Carl Rogers’ Influence :
○ Major figure in psychotherapy for over half a century.
○ Shifted focus from therapist-centered to client-centered approaches.
○ Emphasized the client’s potential for self-actualization if given the right supportive environment.
● Maslow’s Legacy :
○ Continues to inspire research on positive psychology, human potential, and growth.
○ “Hierarchy of needs” and self-actualization remain foundational concepts in psychology.
