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Perception and Cognition > Lecture 9- Remembering and forgetting > Flashcards

Lecture 9- Remembering and forgetting Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 processes involved in remembering?

A

Encoding, storage and retrieval

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2
Q

What is encoding?

A

Registering new information into memory

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3
Q

What is storage?

A

Storing the newly encoding information in memory

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4
Q

What is retrieval?

A

Recovery of previously stored information

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5
Q

What is rehearsal?

A

The transfer from STM to LTM within the Atkinson and Shiffrin modal model of memory

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6
Q

What are the two types of rehearsal?

A

Maintenance and elaborative rehearsal

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7
Q

Who looked at the distinction between the types of rehearsal?

A

Craik and Lockhart

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8
Q

Who looked at maintenance rehearsal and long term recall?

A

Glenberg, Smith and Green

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9
Q

What did Glenberg, Smith and Green do?

A

PP had to recall 4 digit numbers
Between study and digit they had to rehearse a distractor word for some time (2 vs 6 vs 12 seconds)
There were 54 trials and had a different interpolated word was used on every trial
After 54 trials pps were asked to recall the words

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10
Q

What were the results from Glenberg et al?

A

Higher items recalled when the duration of rehearsal is 18

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11
Q

Who found the levels of processing theory?

A

Craik and Lockhart

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12
Q

What is the levels of processing theory?

A

How perpetual and comprehension processes leave behind a memory trace. The deeper an item is processes the better it is retained.

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13
Q

Who looked at the levels of processing theory?

A

Craik and Tulving

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14
Q

What did Craik and Tulving do?

A

Presented a list of words
Each word could be associated with one of three types of encoding

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15
Q

What were the 3 encoding conditions in Craik and Tulving?

A

Structural, phonological and semantic

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16
Q

Who found the transfer appropriate processing theory?

A

Morris, Bransford and Franks

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17
Q

What is the TAP theory?

A

Memory performance depending on the extent to which processes used at the time of learning are the same as those when memory is tested

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18
Q

What does the level of processing theory assume?

A

That deep (e.g. semantic) processing is always better than shallow (e.g. structuralO

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19
Q

Why is deeper processing good for learning?

A

As it emphasises the use of a semantic code

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20
Q

Who did a test of the TAP theory?

A

Morris et al

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21
Q

What did Morris et al do?

A

PP performed deep vs shallow orienting tasks
After 32 tasks pps were given a recognition test (either a standard recognition or a rhyming recognition)

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22
Q

What were the results of Morris et al?

A

Effect in standard test is consistent with level of processing view but it is the opposite result for rhyming test
Semantic processing does not always enhance memory

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23
Q

What is encoding-specificity principle?

A

The likelihood of retrieval depending on the overlap between cues present at encoding and retrieval

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24
Q

Who looked at the evidence for the encoding specificity principle?

A

Barclay et al

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25
Q

What did Barclay et al do?

A

If the cues will be more effective for recalling the word PIANO

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26
Q

What did Barclay et al find?

A

PPs encoded words with their context

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27
Q

What are contextual cues?

A

Environmental or situational cues that are associated with the encoding or retrieval of information.
They provide context to help recall

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28
Q

Who distinguished the two types of context?

A

Hewitt

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29
Q

What are the 2 types of context?

A

Intrinsic and extrinsic

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30
Q

What is intrinsic?

A

Features that are integral to the stimulus

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31
Q

What is extrinsic?

A

Other features present at the time of encoding including one’s own cognitive state

32
Q

Who looked at context dependent forgetting?

A

Godden and Baddeley

33
Q

What did Godden and Baddeley do?

A

Divers learnt lists of words either on land or underwater. Had 4 conditions

34
Q

What did Godden and Baddeley find?

A

Higher level of recall when they are in the same conditions that they learnt the lists

35
Q

What is state dependent recall?

A

Recall being better if one’s internal state during recall mirrors one’s state during encoding

36
Q

Who looked at the effects of marijuana on recall?

A

Eich et al

37
Q

What did Eich et al find?

A

High recall in matching state conditions when it is the same when they encoded

38
Q

Who looked at the benefits of organisation?

A

Mandler (1967)

39
Q

What did Mandler do?

A

PPs asked to organise words on printed cards into different piles and had to come up with 5-7 piles

40
Q

What did Mandler find?

A

The group that were told about the test and asked to organise the words and also those who were only asked to organise the words

41
Q

What is forgetting?

A

The inability to access memory such as retrieval failure rather than a loss of memory

42
Q

Who spoke about forgetting?

A

Tulving and Pearlstone

43
Q

What did Tulving and Pearlstone say?

A

We can often recognise things we can’t recall and the cued recall is much better than free recall

44
Q

When does forgetting least happen?

A

When there is name and picture recognition

45
Q

Why do we forget?

A

The law of disuse and the decay theory

46
Q

Who found the law of disuse?

A

Thorndike

47
Q

What is the law of disuse?

A

When information is not reinforced through practice or retrieval it becomes difficult to recall over time

48
Q

How can disuse be mitigated?

A

Reactivation of the neural connection by strengthening the neural pathways associated with the information

49
Q

What is the decay theory?

A

Refers to STM when it is not transferred to the LTM through rehearsal and neurones that encode memories weaken over time

50
Q

Where is decay active?

A

In the hippocampus

51
Q

Who looked at interference?

A

McGoech and Macdonald

52
Q

What are the two types of interference?

A

Proactive and retroactive

53
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Old information interferes with the recall of new information

54
Q

What is proactive interference caused by?

A

Causes by competition between the correct response and the incorrect

55
Q

What is competition?

A

When the incorrect response is associated with the same stimulus

56
Q

Who looked at proactive interference?

A

Jacoby et al

57
Q

What did Jacoby et al find?

A

Proactive interference may occur as the correct response is weak or because the incorrect is strong

58
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

When new information interferes with the call of old information

59
Q

How can retroactive interference occur in 2 ways?

A

Expenditure of mental effort in retention interval and learning of material is similar to the original learning material

60
Q

How can repression cause forgetting?

A

Traumatic and threatening memories can cause lack of access to conscious awareness

61
Q

Who looked at repression?

A

Loftus and Davis

62
Q

What did Loftus and Davis find?

A

Recovered memories are usually false memories

63
Q

What is the first language attrition?

A

It explains why people forget word from their native language after acquiring a second language

64
Q

How does retrieval interval relate to decay?

A

If forgetting is due to decay then recall should depend on the length of retention length

65
Q

What happens if forgetting is due to interference?

A

Recall should depend on amount of similar learning within the retention interval

66
Q

What does the decay say about forgetting?

A

There should be more forgetting after longer retention intervals even though the amount of new information remains constant

67
Q

What does the interference say about forgetting?

A

There should be more forgetting after new learning even when the length of retention interval remains constant

68
Q

Who looked at if forgetting is due to decay or interference?

A

Jenkins and Dallenbach

69
Q

What did Jenkins and Dallenbach do?

A

PPs learned nonsense syllables either before bed or at the beginning of the day.
They were tested either immediately or 1, 2, 4, 8 hours later

70
Q

What did Jenkins and Dallenbach find?

A

The number recalled goes down the longer the retention interval particularly when they are awake

71
Q

Who looked at memory and predictability?

A

Rubenstein and Aborn

72
Q

What did Rubenstein and Aborn find?

A

The more reductant and predictable a piece of prose the easier it is to recall

73
Q

What is the findings from the Bartlett Approach?

A

The remembered story was always shorter and more coherent and tended to fit closely with the participant’s own viewpoints

74
Q

What does the social and cultural influence with the Bartlett approach?

A

The development of schemas which determines how the material is encoded, stored and recalled

75
Q

Why are there systematic errors in the Bartlett approach?

A

Due to the intrusion of the schematic knowledge

Perception and Cognition (8 decks)

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