🧠MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review - 11 Flashcards
(196 cards)
1
Q
What is the primary focus of sociology?
A
The study of society, including how we create, interact, and define normality.
2
Q
What are the three levels at which sociologists study society?
A
- Micro level: family groups and local communities
- Meso level: organizations, institutions, and ethnic subcultures
- Macro level: national and international systems
3
Q
Which theoretical approach studies how humans interact using symbols?
A
Symbolic interactionism
4
Q
What does conflict theory examine?
A
How groups with little power can rise and create more equality.
5
Q
What are the three main assumptions of symbolic interactionism?
A
- Humans act toward symbols based on their meanings
- Meanings come from social interaction
- Humans interpret meanings, influencing their actions
6
Q
Fill in the blank: A _______ is any object, image, sound, or action that carries meaning to humans.
A
[symbol]
7
Q
What is social constructionism?
A
The study of how society creates and agrees upon social constructs.
8
Q
What is a social construct?
A
Any idea created and accepted by the people in a society.
9
Q
True or False: The meanings of symbols are fixed and unchanging.
A
False
10
Q
Which ethical principle states that physicians should avoid harm?
A
Nonmaleficence
11
Q
What is a manifest function?
A
An intended positive effect on a system.
12
Q
What are the four key tenets of American medical ethics?
A
- Autonomy
- Beneficence
- Justice
- Nonmaleficence
13
Q
Which demographic variable is biologically determined?
A
Sex
14
Q
What is the Kinsey scale used to measure?
A
Sexual orientation
15
Q
What does urbanization potentially lead to?
A
Negative effects such as increased transmission of infectious disease.
16
Q
Fill in the blank: A _______ is a formal coalition formed to advocate against a specific issue.
A
[social movement]
17
Q
Which of the following is NOT an example of material culture: A) Traditional Kenyan clothing, B) Japanese cuisine, C) American values, D) American Indian sand paintings?
A
C) American values
18
Q
What demographic trend has been observed in the United States over the last few decades?
A
Bigger, older, and more diverse population.
19
Q
What is a social construct?
A
An idea or concept that relies on group agreement within a society.
20
Q
Give an example of a social construct.
A
- Honor
- Justice
- Money
- Work ethic
- Acceptable dress
- Gender roles
21
Q
What is the limitation of social constructionism?
A
It cannot account for macro-level sociological phenomena.
22
Q
What does rational choice theory focus on?
A
Individual decision making based on self-interest.
23
Q
According to rational choice theory, how do individuals make choices?
A
By weighing costs and benefits to maximize perceived benefit.
24
Q
What is another name for rational choice theory?
A
Social exchange theory.
25
What does conflict theory examine?
The conflicts between groups in society.
26
Who is the founder of conflict theory?
Karl Marx.
27
What is capitalism according to Karl Marx?
An economic system where individuals and corporations own the means of production.
28
Define bourgeoisie in Marx's model.
The wealthy capitalist class that controls the means of production.
29
Define proletariat in Marx's model.
The lower worker class that performs manual labor.
30
What is the glass ceiling?
Invisible barriers that limit women's progress to top job positions.
31
What is the glass escalator?
The phenomenon where men are pushed into higher positions in female-dominated fields.
32
What does structural-functionalism focus on?
Social cohesion and stability within large societies.
33
Who founded structural-functionalism?
Emile Durkheim.
34
What are manifest functions?
Intended consequences of a group's actions.
35
What are latent functions?
Unintended but beneficial consequences of a group's actions.
36
What are dysfunctions in structural-functionalism?
Negative consequences of institutions or interactions.
37
What does feminist theory critique?
Institutional power structures that disadvantage women.
38
What is the primary focus of feminist theory?
Gender stratification and inequality.
39
How does conflict theory relate to healthcare?
It examines who holds power in the healthcare system.
40
What are social institutions?
Well-established structures that dictate patterns of behavior and relationships.
41
List three major social institutions.
* Family
* Education
* Government
42
What is the role of family as a social institution?
To regulate reproduction, socialize, and protect children.
43
What does the term 'social cohesion' refer to?
The bonds that bring society together and promote stability.
44
What is a key characteristic of structural-functionalism?
It views society as an organism with each group playing a vital role.
45
Fill in the blank: The _______ refers to the processes that limit women's progress to the highest job positions.
glass ceiling
46
True or False: Conflict theory effectively explains individual choices in society.
False
47
What happens when heterogeneous groups interact more frequently?
Increased feelings of trust, safety, and social capital.
48
What is the significance of social institutions in relation to culture?
They are fundamental parts of culture that regulate behavior.
49
What does the term 'social exchange theory' emphasize?
The evaluation of reciprocity and balance in social relationships.
50
What is the impact of power differentials according to conflict theory?
They lead to the establishment of institutions that seek to maintain the power differential.
51
Fill in the blank: According to structural-functionalism, each social group's role is called its _______.
function
52
What are the two types of functions in structural-functionalism?
* Manifest functions
* Latent functions
53
What is a common term used in Hawaiian culture to refer to all family members?
Cousins
## Footnote
Unlike many other cultures, Hawaiian culture uses 'cousins' to describe family members broadly.
54
What basic needs does the family institution help to meet?
* Food
* Shelter
* Emotional security
* Physical security
* Intimacy
55
What are the stages of coupling in family relationships?
* Courtship
* Cohabitation
* Engagement
* Marriage
56
What are some alternative family structures mentioned?
* Single-parent families
* Cohabitation with extended family
* Families with marital disunions (divorce)
* Same-sex parenting
* Adoption
* Foster parenting
57
True or False: Divorce rates in the United States have consistently risen over the last two decades.
False
## Footnote
Divorce rates rose significantly in the second half of the twentieth century but have started to drop recently.
58
What is the most common form of domestic violence?
Spousal abuse
## Footnote
Domestic violence includes physical, sexual, emotional, and financial abuse.
59
What is a mandated reporter?
A person legally required to report suspected cases of elder or child abuse
60
What is the primary aim of education as an institution?
To provide a population with useful skills
## Footnote
Education serves both formal and latent functions.
61
What does the term 'hidden curriculum' refer to in education?
Transmission of social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students
62
Fill in the blank: Teacher _______ refers to the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students.
expectancy
63
How does socioeconomic status affect education?
Lower socioeconomic status is associated with decreased accessibility to and quality of education
64
What does 'religiosity' refer to?
How religious one considers oneself to be
65
List the five major religions that approximately 75% of the population identifies with.
* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Hinduism
* Islam
* Judaism
66
What is the difference between a denomination and a sect?
A denomination is a part of a church; a sect is a religious group that has broken off from the parent religion
67
True or False: Fundamentalism is characterized by a shift toward modernization within a religion.
False
## Footnote
Fundamentalism is characterized by strict adherence to religious code.
68
What are the main goals of American healthcare over the past few decades?
* Increased access to care
* Decreased costs
* Prevention of disease
* Association with a primary care physician
* Increased public health education
* Decreased paternalism
* Reduced economic conflicts of interest
* Life course approach to health
69
What is the 'sick role'?
A sociological concept where an ill patient is exempt from normal social roles but is expected to seek competent help
70
What does the term 'medicalization' mean?
Defining and treating certain behaviors as medical conditions
71
What are the four key tenets of American medical ethics?
* Beneficence: act in the patient's best interest
* Nonmaleficence: do no harm
* Respect for patient autonomy: respect patients' healthcare choices
* Justice: treat similar patients with similar care
72
What is social epidemiology?
The study of the effects of institutions and social structures on health
73
Fill in the blank: Government and economy can be defined as systematic arrangements of political and _______ relationships.
capital
74
What are manifest functions?
Manifest functions are the intended and recognized consequences of a social structure or action.
75
What are latent functions?
Latent functions are the unintended and unrecognized consequences of a social structure or action.
76
What is the primary thesis of Functionalism?
Functionalism views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and social order.
77
What is the primary thesis of Conflict Theory?
Conflict Theory focuses on the struggle for power and the inequalities that exist within society.
78
What is the primary thesis of Symbolic Interactionism?
Symbolic Interactionism emphasizes the role of symbols and language as core elements of all human interaction.
79
What is the primary thesis of Social Constructionism?
Social Constructionism posits that human development and reality are socially constructed through interactions.
80
What is the primary thesis of Rational Choice-Exchange Theory?
Rational Choice-Exchange Theory suggests that individuals make decisions based on the perceived costs and benefits.
81
What is the primary thesis of Feminist Theory?
Feminist Theory examines the ways in which gender inequalities shape social structures and experiences.
82
What are the four key tenets of American medical ethics?
The four key tenets are:
* Autonomy
* Beneficence
* Non-maleficence
* Justice
83
What is material culture?
Material culture encompasses the physical items that a group creates, possesses, and values.
84
What is symbolic culture?
Symbolic culture, also known as nonmaterial culture, includes the ideas, beliefs, and values that represent a group.
85
Fill in the blank: Language is the most highly developed and complex _______ system used by most cultures.
symbol
86
What are values in the context of culture?
Values are what a person deems important in life, dictating ethical principles and standards of behavior.
87
What is a belief?
A belief is something that an individual accepts to be true.
88
What are norms?
Norms are societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior.
89
What is a ritual?
A ritual is a formalized ceremony usually involving specific material objects, symbolism, and mandates on acceptable behavior.
90
What is culture lag?
Culture lag is the phenomenon where symbolic culture changes more slowly than material culture.
91
How does culture influence evolution?
Culture may influence evolution by favoring certain genetic traits based on cultural values and beliefs.
92
What does ethnography study?
Ethnography studies cultures and customs through experimental methods.
93
Fill in the blank: Culture binds our nation-states, political institutions, marketplaces, ________, and ideologies.
religions
94
What is the significance of language in culture?
Language enables the transmission of culture and is critical for sharing ideas and experiences.
95
What is an example of American symbolic culture?
Phrases like 'free enterprise' and 'life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness' are examples.
96
What role does culture play in creating a sense of loyalty?
Culture creates a sense of loyalty and allegiance, which can explain altruistic behavior.
97
What are cultural barriers?
Cultural barriers are situations where cultural differences impede interaction with others.
98
What are demographics?
Statistics of populations and mathematical applications of sociology.
99
What is the difference between race and ethnicity?
Race refers to socially constructed groupings based on inherited phenotypic characteristics, while ethnicity refers to groupings based on shared language, cultural heritage, religion, and/or national origin.
100
Define symbolic ethnicity.
A specific connection to one's ethnicity where ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life.
101
What is the life course perspective?
Considering an individual's age and cumulative life experiences when analyzing their personality, social status, health, and other social metrics.
102
What is ageism?
Prejudice or discrimination based on a person's age.
103
What are age cohorts?
Groupings of individuals based on their age or birth year.
104
What does the dependency ratio measure?
The ratio of the number of non-working population members to the number of working population members.
105
What is the youth ratio?
The number of people under the age of 15 divided by the number of people aged 15-65.
106
What is the age dependency ratio?
The number of people over 65 divided by the number of people aged 15-65.
107
What is demographic transition theory?
A theory explaining the transition from developing to developed economies based on changes in birth and mortality rates.
108
What are gender roles?
Socially constructed expected behavioral traits associated with a particular sex.
109
What is gender segregation?
The separation of individuals based on perceived gender.
110
Define gender inequality.
The intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of others.
111
What is gender stratification?
Inequality in access to social resources based on gender.
112
What are the five racial categories recognized by the U.S. Census?
* White
* Black
* Asian
* American Indian or Alaskan native
* Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
113
What is the significance of racial labels in society?
Racial labels affect lives through institutionalized practices of preference and discrimination.
114
What is the difference between race and ethnicity?
Race is based on phenotypic characteristics, while ethnicity is based on cultural factors.
115
What is sexual orientation?
The direction of one's sexual interest.
116
List the three categories of sexual orientation.
* Heterosexual
* Bisexual
* Homosexual
117
What is the Kinsey scale?
A scale describing sexuality from 0 (exclusive heterosexuality) to 6 (exclusive homosexuality).
118
What does LGBTQ stand for?
* Lesbian
* Gay
* Bisexual
* Transgender
* Queer or Questioning
119
What historical disparity has affected the LGBTQ community?
Higher prevalence of HIV, particularly among men who have sex with men.
120
What is a health disparity?
Differences in health outcomes and access to healthcare among different populations.
121
True or False: Gender and sex are synonymous.
False
122
Fill in the blank: The fastest-growing age cohort in the United States is the _______.
85-or-older group.
123
What does MSM stand for?
Men who have sex with men
124
What has helped to slow the HIV epidemic?
Efforts to encourage safe sex and increase screening
125
What is the AIDS Memorial Quilt?
A project to increase awareness of those with HIV/AIDS
126
How does healthcare screening differ for lesbian individuals?
They receive less screening for cervical cancer and may not be screened for other STIs
127
What risks are associated with transgender individuals?
Increased risk from off-label or unsupervised use of 'street hormones'
128
What mental health issues are prevalent in the LGBTQ community?
Higher rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide
129
What is the trend in fertility rates in the United States?
Fertility rates have trended downward over time
130
What is the current estimated immigrant population in the U.S.?
40.4 million in 2011, expected to increase by 20 million in the next two decades
131
Define first-generation immigrant.
Someone born outside of their place of residence
132
What is second-generation immigrant?
A person with at least one foreign-born parent
133
What are push factors in migration?
Negative attributes of the old location that encourage leaving
134
What are pull factors in migration?
Positive attributes of the new location that attract residents
135
What does the term intersectionality refer to?
The interplay of multiple demographic factors leading to discrimination or oppression
136
What are the four stages of demographic transition?
* Stage 1: High birth and death rates
* Stage 2: Decreasing death rates
* Stage 3: Decreasing birth rates
* Stage 4: Low birth and death rates
137
What is the definition of fertility rate?
Average number of children born to a woman over a lifetime
138
What is the definition of mortality rate?
Number of deaths in a population per unit time, usually per 1000 people per year
139
What does the term demographic shift refer to?
Changes in the makeup of a population over time
140
What is the significance of population pyramids?
They provide a histogram of the population size of various age cohorts
141
What is the relationship between migration and population growth?
Immigration increases population size and diversity
142
What is demographic transition theory?
Explains the link between economic development and demographic shift
143
What is Malthusian theory?
Focuses on how exponential population growth can outpace food supply
144
What are proactive social movements?
Movements that promote social change
145
What are reactive social movements?
Movements that resist social change
146
What is globalization?
The merging of separate nations into a single sociocultural entity
147
What is urbanization?
The process of migration to dense areas of population forming cities
148
What health challenges are linked to urban societies?
* Water sanitation issues
* Air quality problems
* Environmental hazards
* Violence and injuries
* Infectious diseases
149
What is the role of organizations like WHO and Doctors Without Borders?
They supply aid to populations in need globally
150
What is cultural sensitivity?
Recognition and respect of differences between cultures
151
What is the significance of the biopsychosocial model of medicine?
It emphasizes a holistic approach to patient care
152
What is the difference between birth rate and fertility rate?
* Birth rate: children per 1000 people per year
* Fertility rate: children per woman over a lifetime
153
What happens to the mortality rate during demographic transition?
It drops before the birth rate
154
What is the expected outcome of a fifth stage of demographic transition?
Birth rates fall below death rates, resulting in a decline of total population
155
What is the biopsychosocial model of medicine?
A model that incorporates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness.
156
What is the paternalistic approach to medicine?
An outdated model where doctors make decisions for patients without their input.
157
What is functionalism in sociology?
A theoretical approach that focuses on the function of each component of society and how they fit together.
158
Define manifest functions.
Deliberate actions that serve to help a given system.
159
Define latent functions.
Unexpected, unintended, or unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions.
160
What does conflict theory focus on?
How power differentials are created and how they contribute to the maintenance of social order.
161
What is symbolic interactionism?
The study of ways individuals interact through shared understanding of symbols.
162
What is social constructionism?
Explores how individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality.
163
What does rational choice theory state?
Individuals make decisions that maximize potential benefit and minimize potential harm.
164
What is feminist theory?
A critique of institutional power structures that disadvantage women in society.
165
List the common social institutions.
* Family
* Education
* Religion
* Government
* Economy
* Health and medicine
166
What are the four key ethical tenets of American medicine?
* Beneficence
* Nonmaleficence
* Respect for autonomy
* Justice
167
Define culture.
The lifestyle of a group of people, including both material and symbolic elements.
168
What is material culture?
Physical items associated with a given group, such as artwork, clothing, and tools.
169
What is symbolic culture?
The ideas associated with a cultural group.
170
What is cultural lag?
The idea that material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture.
171
What is a cultural barrier?
A social difference that impedes interaction.
172
Define language.
A system of spoken, signed, or written symbols governed by rules.
173
What is a value?
What a person deems important in life.
174
What is a belief?
Something a person considers to be true.
175
Define a ritual.
A formalized ceremonial behavior governed by specific rules.
176
What are norms?
Societal rules defining the boundaries of acceptable behavior.
177
What is gender?
The set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex.
178
What is race?
A social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people.
179
What is ethnicity?
A social construct that sorts people by cultural factors such as language and nationality.
180
Define symbolic ethnicity.
Recognition of an ethnic identity relevant only on special occasions.
181
What is sexual orientation?
Defined by one's sexual interest toward members of same or different genders.
182
What is immigration?
The movement into a new geographic area.
183
What is emigration?
The movement away from a geographic area.
184
What is the fertility rate?
The average number of children born to a woman over a lifetime.
185
What is the birth rate?
The number of births per 1000 people per year.
186
What is the mortality rate?
The number of deaths per 1000 people per year.
187
What is migration?
The movement of people from one geographic location to another.
188
What is demographic transition?
A model representing drops in birth and death rates due to industrialization.
189
What are social movements?
Organized efforts to promote or resist social change.
190
Define globalization.
The process of integrating a global economy with free trade.
191
What is urbanization?
The process of population density creating cities.
192
True or False: Beneficence refers to avoiding treatments where the risk is larger than the benefit.
False
193
True or False: Symbolic culture includes only physical artifacts.
False
194
Fill in the blank: _______ refers to acting in the patient's best interest.
Beneficence
195
Fill in the blank: _______ is the average number of deaths per population size over time.
Mortality rate
196
Fill in the blank: _______ refers to the lifestyle of a group of people.
Culture
