🧠MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review - 4 Flashcards
(207 cards)
1
Q
Which term describes how existing schemata are modified to incorporate new information?
A
Accommodation
2
Q
What drug is likely taken by a student experiencing paranoia and lack of appetite after being awake for over 48 hours?
A
Dextroamphetamine
3
Q
What cognitive error is demonstrated by a student overestimating the prevalence of stroke among those over 65?
A
Base rate fallacy
4
Q
Which type of intelligence is NOT part of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?
A
Fluid intelligence
5
Q
EEG waveforms during REM sleep most resemble which state of consciousness?
A
Alertness
6
Q
What is the pattern of sleep stages during a complete sleep cycle early in the night?
A
1–2–3–4–3–2–REM
7
Q
What best explains a student’s ability to watch TV while studying for an exam?
A
Divided attention
8
Q
Which theory of dreaming states that dreams and thoughts during wakeful periods use the same system?
A
Cognitive process theory
9
Q
What psychoactive substance is most likely associated with a student giggling and asking for water?
A
Tetrahydrocannabinol
10
Q
Which component of language involves the order in which words are put together?
A
Syntax
11
Q
How old is a child likely to be if they speak in sentences of at least 3 words but make grammatical errors?
A
30 months
12
Q
Which language theory suggests that language development occurs due to reinforcement by caregivers?
A
Learning theory
13
Q
Which brain area is likely affected in a stroke patient who can comprehend speech but cannot form words?
A
Broca’s area
14
Q
What phenomenon explains a person’s rapid response to a boarding announcement at an airport?
A
Cocktail party phenomenon
15
Q
During which stage does dreaming occur?
A
III. REM
16
Q
What are the four key components of the information processing model?
A
- Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli.
- Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain for decision making.
- Decisions can be extrapolated to help solve new problems.
- Problem solving depends on cognitive level and context.
17
Q
What does cognitive development encompass?
A
The development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the life span.
18
Q
What is the significance of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
A
They propose qualitative differences between the thinking of children and adults.
19
Q
What are Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?
A
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
20
Q
What are the four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget?
A
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
Each stage represents a qualitative difference in thinking between children and adults.
21
Q
What is a schema according to Piaget?
A
Organized patterns of behavior and thought that include concepts, behaviors, or sequences of events.
Examples include concepts like ‘What is a dog?’ or behaviors like ‘What do you do when someone asks you your name?’.
22
Q
What are the two processes involved in adaptation according to Piaget?
A
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
Assimilation involves classifying new information into existing schemata, while accommodation modifies existing schemata to incorporate new information.
23
Q
What key milestone marks the end of the sensorimotor stage?
A
Development of object permanence.
Object permanence is understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view.
24
Q
What characterizes the preoperational stage?
A
- Symbolic thinking
- Egocentrism
- Inability to grasp conservation
Egocentrism means the inability to imagine another person’s perspective.
25
What is centration in the context of Piaget's preoperational stage?
Tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon while ignoring other important elements.
## Footnote
For example, focusing on the number of slices of pizza rather than the total quantity.
26
What abilities do children develop during the concrete operational stage?
* Understanding conservation
* Considering perspectives of others
* Engaging in logical thought with concrete objects
## Footnote
This stage lasts from about 7 to 11 years of age.
27
What defines the formal operational stage of cognitive development?
Ability to think logically about abstract ideas and reason about abstract concepts.
## Footnote
This stage generally coincides with adolescence.
28
What is hypothetical reasoning?
The ability to mentally manipulate variables in various ways, typically within scientific experiments.
## Footnote
It is a key component of the formal operational stage.
29
How does culture influence cognitive development?
Culture determines expected learning, values social learning or knowledge, and influences the rate of cognitive development.
## Footnote
Different cultures may treat children differently, impacting their cognitive growth.
30
Who proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the internalization of culture?
Lev Vygotsky.
## Footnote
He emphasized the role of social interaction in developing cognitive skills.
31
What are the two subtypes of intelligence affected by aging?
* Fluid intelligence
* Crystallized intelligence
## Footnote
Fluid intelligence declines with age, while crystallized intelligence remains stable.
32
What cognitive changes occur in late adulthood?
* Increased reaction time
* Decline in time-based prospective memory
* Potential decline in intellectual abilities
## Footnote
Intellectual decline can be influenced by education and social engagement.
33
What is dementia?
A collective term for disorders characterized by general loss of cognitive function, often starting with impaired memory.
## Footnote
Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia.
34
What are some common causes of dementia?
* Alzheimer's disease
* Vascular dementia
* Other progressive conditions
## Footnote
Vascular dementia is caused by high blood pressure and repeated microscopic clots in the brain.
35
What factors can influence cognitive development and decline?
* Organic brain disorders
* Genetic conditions
* Environmental influences
* Parenting styles
## Footnote
Conditions like Down syndrome and fetal alcohol syndrome can delay cognitive development.
36
What is functional fixedness?
The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner.
## Footnote
This concept is illustrated by Duncker's candle problem.
37
What is trial-and-error problem solving?
A less sophisticated method where various solutions are tried until one works.
## Footnote
Effective when there are few possible solutions.
38
What is an algorithm in problem solving?
A formula or procedure designed to solve a certain type of problem.
## Footnote
Algorithms can be mathematical or a set of instructions.
39
What is deductive reasoning?
A logical process where conclusions are drawn from general premises.
## Footnote
It involves reasoning from the general to the specific.
40
What is trial-and-error in problem solving?
A less sophisticated type of problem solving where various solutions are tried until one works.
## Footnote
Effective when there are relatively few possible solutions.
41
Define algorithm in the context of problem solving.
A formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem, which can be mathematical or a set of instructions.
## Footnote
Designed to automatically produce the desired solution.
42
What is deductive reasoning?
A top-down reasoning approach that starts from general rules and draws conclusions from the given information.
## Footnote
Often illustrated through logic puzzles.
43
What is the key characteristic of logic puzzles?
They require synthesizing logical rules to deduce a single possible solution.
## Footnote
Only one solution can be derived based on the provided information.
44
True or False: A deduction is a solution that might be true based on the information given.
False.
## Footnote
A deduction must be true based on the information provided.
45
What is inductive reasoning?
A bottom-up reasoning approach that seeks to create a theory via generalizations starting with specific instances.
## Footnote
Draws conclusions from specific examples.
46
What are heuristics?
Simplified principles used to make decisions, often referred to as 'rules of thumb.'
## Footnote
They can speed up decision-making but may lead to errors.
47
What is the availability heuristic?
A heuristic where the likelihood of an event is based on how easily examples come to mind.
## Footnote
Can lead to incorrect decisions due to cognitive biases.
48
Fill in the blank: The __________ heuristic involves categorizing items based on whether they fit the prototypical image of a category.
[representativeness]
49
What is the base rate fallacy?
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information.
## Footnote
Can lead to incorrect judgments in probability assessments.
50
What is confirmation bias?
The tendency to focus on information that fits one's beliefs, rejecting information that contradicts them.
## Footnote
This can impede objective analysis of evidence.
51
What is the disconfirmation principle?
The principle stating that a solution should be discarded if evidence from testing shows it does not work.
## Footnote
Important for effective problem-solving.
52
What does emotional intelligence encompass?
The ability to express and perceive emotions, comprehend and analyze emotions, regulate emotions, and understand how emotions influence thoughts and decisions.
## Footnote
Empathy is often cited as an example of emotional intelligence.
53
What are the components of Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?
* Linguistic
* Logical-mathematical
* Musical
* Visual-spatial
* Bodily-kinesthetic
* Interpersonal
* Intrapersonal
* Naturalist
## Footnote
Gardner's theory emphasizes diverse types of intelligence beyond traditional measures.
54
Define Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence.
Defines three subtypes of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.
## Footnote
Focuses on how intelligence is used rather than measuring its level.
55
What is the affect heuristic?
A judgment made based on emotional state and the emotional content of a decision.
## Footnote
Options provoking positive emotions are preferred over those evoking negative emotions, even if quantitatively identical.
56
What is hindsight bias?
The tendency to overestimate one's ability to predict the outcome of past events.
## Footnote
Can distort the perception of one's predictive abilities.
57
What is belief perseverance?
The inability to reject a belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.
## Footnote
This can hinder rational decision-making processes.
58
How does emotion influence decision making?
Emotions can affect thoughts and decisions, leading to riskier choices when feeling angry or other emotions.
## Footnote
Anticipated emotions from decisions also play a role.
59
What is the 'g factor' in intelligence?
A general intelligence factor proposed by Charles Spearman, indicating that performance on cognitive tasks is often positively correlated.
## Footnote
Measured using standardized tests to generate an IQ score.
60
What is the Stanford-Binet IQ test?
An intelligence test developed from Alfred Binet's work, widely used to assess cognitive abilities.
## Footnote
Pioneered in the early twentieth century.
61
What is the recognition-primed decision model?
A model describing how experienced individuals can make decisions based on pattern recognition without conscious awareness.
## Footnote
Often used in high-stakes environments like emergency medicine.
62
What is the affect heuristic?
A decision-making heuristic where emotional responses influence judgments.
63
In Study 1, which issue is predicted to be rated as more problematic?
Violent crime.
64
In Study 2, how will the batch of items containing broken goods be rated?
Less valuable.
65
In Study 3, how will the smiling student be judged compared to the neutral student?
Less harshly.
66
What is the original formula for calculating IQ?
IQ = (mental age / chronological age) x 100.
67
What IQ would a four-year-old with intelligence abilities of an average six-year-old have?
150.
68
What percentage of children score between 96-105 IQ?
33.9%.
69
Who argued heavily for intelligence as a hereditary trait?
Galton.
70
What factors contribute to variations in intellectual ability?
* Genes
* Environment
* Educational experiences
71
How does the educational system affect intelligence?
Children attending school generally show greater increases in IQ.
72
What happens to IQ during summer vacations?
IQ decreases slightly.
73
What is the least restrictive environment in educational settings?
An environment where students with cognitive disabilities participate as much as possible in mainstream classrooms.
74
What is the purpose of the Stanford-Binet IQ test?
To assess intelligence.
75
What is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)?
An intelligence assessment specialized for children.
76
What are the two hormones most associated with circadian rhythms?
* Melatonin
* Cortisol
77
What is the definition of consciousness?
One's level of awareness of the world and one's existence.
78
What are the accepted states of consciousness?
* Alertness
* Sleep
* Dreaming
* Altered states
79
What physiological changes characterize alertness?
* Increased heart rate
* Increased breathing rate
* Increased blood pressure
80
What brain region maintains alertness?
Prefrontal cortex.
81
What is the consequence of a brain injury disrupting connections between the prefrontal cortex and reticular formation?
Coma.
82
What is the impact of long-term sleep deprivation?
Diminished cognitive performance and chronic diseases.
83
What are the four characteristic EEG patterns correlated with different sleep stages?
* Beta
* Alpha
* Theta
* Delta
84
What occurs during REM sleep?
Arousal levels reach that of wakefulness but muscles are paralyzed.
85
What is the mnemonic to remember the order of brain waves?
BAT-D.
86
What is the duration of a complete sleep cycle?
About 90 minutes.
87
How does the sleep cycle length change from childhood to adulthood?
Increases from approximately 50 minutes in children to 90 minutes in adults.
88
What role does melatonin play in sleep?
It contributes to sleepiness.
89
What is the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming?
Dreams arise from random activation of neural circuitry.
90
What is the problem-solving dream theory?
Dreams help solve problems while sleeping.
91
What are dyssomnias?
Disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep.
92
What is an example of a dyssomnia?
Insomnia.
93
What are the two categories of sleep-wake disorders?
Dyssomnias and parasomnias
## Footnote
Dyssomnias involve difficulties with sleep, while parasomnias involve abnormal behaviors during sleep.
94
Define dyssomnias.
Disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
## Footnote
Examples include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea.
95
What is insomnia?
Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
## Footnote
It is the most common sleep-wake disorder.
96
What characterizes narcolepsy?
Lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
## Footnote
Symptoms include cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hallucinations.
97
What is cataplexy?
A loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours
## Footnote
Usually triggered by strong emotions.
98
What is sleep apnea?
Inability to breathe during sleep
## Footnote
Can be obstructive or central.
99
What is the difference between obstructive and central sleep apnea?
Obstructive sleep apnea involves physical blockage; central sleep apnea involves the brain failing to send signals to breathe.
100
What are night terrors?
Periods of intense anxiety occurring during slow-wave sleep
## Footnote
Common in children; often involve thrashing and screaming.
101
What is sleepwalking?
Somnambulism; abnormal behaviors during sleep such as walking or eating
## Footnote
Usually occurs during SWS and the person has no recollection.
102
True or False: Awakening a sleepwalker is harmful.
False
## Footnote
It is suggested to guide them back to bed quietly.
103
What is REM rebound?
An earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep following sleep deprivation.
104
Define hypnosis.
A state where a person appears in control but is highly suggestible
## Footnote
Involves hypnotic induction and can be used for various therapeutic purposes.
105
What is hypnotic induction?
The process where a hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase concentration.
106
What physiological changes can meditation produce?
Decreased heart rate and blood pressure
## Footnote
Meditation resembles Stage 1 sleep on EEG.
107
List two hormones associated with maintaining circadian rhythms.
Melatonin and cortisol
108
What is the difference between a dyssomnia and a parasomnia?
Dyssomnia involves difficulties with sleep; parasomnia involves abnormal behaviors during sleep.
## Footnote
Example of dyssomnia: insomnia; example of parasomnia: sleepwalking.
109
What are the four groups of consciousness-altering drugs?
Depressants, stimulants, opiates, hallucinogens
## Footnote
Marijuana has depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effects and is considered separately
110
Which drug is the most common depressant?
Alcohol
111
What is the primary effect of depressants on the nervous system?
Reduce nervous system activity, resulting in relaxation and reduced anxiety
112
What neurotransmitter's activity is increased by alcohol?
GABA
113
What is alcohol myopia?
A short-sighted view of the world caused by inability to recognize consequences of actions due to alcohol consumption
114
What are the long-term consequences of alcoholism?
* Cirrhosis
* Liver failure
* Pancreatic damage
* Gastric or duodenal ulcers
* Gastrointestinal cancer
* Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
115
Name two types of sedatives.
Barbiturates and benzodiazepines
116
What is the primary function of stimulants?
Increase arousal in the nervous system
117
How do amphetamines increase arousal?
By increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake
118
What are the psychological effects of cocaine?
* Euphoria
* Hypervigilance
* Anxiety
* Delusions of grandeur
* Paranoia
119
What is the main active chemical in marijuana?
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
120
What are the three main structures in the mesolimbic reward pathway?
* Nucleus accumbens (NAc)
* Ventral tegmental area (VTA)
* Medial forebrain bundle (MFB)
121
What neurotransmitter is associated with the mesolimbic reward pathway?
Dopamine
122
What is the primary function of selective attention?
Focus on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
123
What is the cocktail party phenomenon?
The ability to perceive one's name being mentioned in a noisy environment despite being engaged in another conversation
124
What is dichotic listening?
A test designed to assess selective attention involving distinct auditory stimuli in each ear
125
What is divided attention?
The ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
126
What is the difference between controlled processing and automatic processing?
* Controlled processing: Requires undivided attention and is effortful
* Automatic processing: Familiar or routine actions requiring less attention
127
What are the five basic components of language?
* Phonology
* Morphology
* Semantics
* Syntax
* Pragmatics
128
What is the role of the 'filter' in selective attention?
To allow focused processing of attended stimuli while filtering out unattended stimuli
129
What are the five basic components of language?
* Phonology
* Morphology
* Semantics
* Syntax
* Pragmatics
130
Define phonology in the context of language.
Phonology refers to the actual sound of language.
131
What is categorical perception in language acquisition?
Categorical perception is the ability to distinguish subtle differences in speech sounds that represent a change in meaning.
132
What does morphology refer to in language?
Morphology refers to the structure of words and their building blocks called morphemes.
133
What is semantics in relation to language?
Semantics refers to the association of meaning with words.
134
Explain syntax in the context of language.
Syntax refers to how words are put together to form sentences.
135
What does pragmatics refer to in language use?
Pragmatics refers to the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge.
136
What is the timeline of language acquisition from 9 months to 5 years?
* 9 to 12 months: babbling
* 12 to 18 months: about one word per month
* 18 to 20 months: explosion of language and combining words
* 2 to 3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more)
* 5 years: language rules largely mastered
137
What is the nativist (biological) theory of language acquisition?
The nativist theory posits an innate capacity for language, with a critical period for language acquisition between two years and puberty.
138
Who is credited with the nativist theory and what concept did he introduce?
Noam Chomsky is credited with the nativist theory and introduced the concept of the language acquisition device (LAD).
139
What does the learning (behaviorist) theory propose about language acquisition?
The learning theory explains language acquisition through operant conditioning and reinforcement by caregivers.
140
What is the social interactionist theory of language development?
The social interactionist theory focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes in language acquisition.
141
What is the Whorfian hypothesis?
The Whorfian hypothesis suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language.
142
Which brain area controls the motor function of speech?
Broca's area.
143
What is the role of Wernicke's area in language?
Wernicke's area is responsible for language comprehension.
144
What is the arcuate fasciculus?
The arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of axons that connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area.
145
What is Broca's aphasia?
Broca's aphasia is characterized by intact speech comprehension but reduced ability to produce spoken language.
146
What is Wernicke's aphasia?
Wernicke's aphasia is characterized by retained motor production and fluency of speech but lost comprehension of speech.
147
What occurs in conduction aphasia?
In conduction aphasia, speech production and comprehension are intact, but the patient is unable to repeat what has been said.
148
What is conduction aphasia?
A type of aphasia where the patient cannot repeat words heard despite intact speech production and comprehension due to damage to the arcuate fasciculus.
## Footnote
It is a rare form of aphasia.
149
What are the expected language development milestones for 9 to 12 months?
Babbling
## Footnote
This is the beginning of vocal experimentation.
150
What are the expected language development milestones for 12 to 18 months?
Increase of about one word per month
## Footnote
This indicates early vocabulary growth.
151
What are the expected language development milestones for 18 to 20 months?
Explosion of language and combining words (two-word sentences)
## Footnote
This marks a significant leap in language use.
152
What are the expected language development milestones for 2 to 3 years?
Longer sentences of three or more words
## Footnote
This shows advancement in sentence structure.
153
What are the expected language development milestones for 5 years?
Language rules largely mastered
## Footnote
At this stage, children typically understand and use grammar.
154
What is the primary motivation in the nativist (biological) theory of language acquisition?
An innate ability to pick up language via the language acquisition device (LAD)
## Footnote
This theory suggests that humans are biologically predisposed to learn language.
155
What is the primary motivation in the learning (behaviorist) theory of language acquisition?
Operant conditioning with reinforcement by caregivers
## Footnote
This approach emphasizes the role of environmental factors in language learning.
156
What is the primary motivation in the social interactionist theory of language acquisition?
A desire to communicate and act socially
## Footnote
This theory highlights the importance of social interactions in language development.
157
What does the Whorfi.an hypothesis state?
The lens through which we view and interpret the world is created by language
## Footnote
This theory emphasizes the relationship between language and thought.
158
What is Broca's area responsible for?
Motor function of speech
## Footnote
Damage here results in Broca's aphasia, characterized by difficulty in speech production.
159
What is Wernicke's area responsible for?
Language comprehension
## Footnote
Damage here results in Wernicke's aphasia, characterized by fluent but nonsensical speech.
160
What is the arcuate fasciculus?
The neural pathway connecting Wernicke's area and Broca's area
## Footnote
Damage to this area results in conduction aphasia.
161
What are the key features of Broca’s aphasia?
Difficulty producing language, hesitancy, and great difficulty coming up with words
## Footnote
Speech is nonfluent but comprehension is intact.
162
What are the key features of Wernicke’s aphasia?
Fluent speech, nonsensical sounds, and loss of comprehension
## Footnote
Patients can produce speech but it lacks meaning.
163
What are the key features of conduction aphasia?
Intact speech production and comprehension but difficulty repeating speech
## Footnote
This type of aphasia occurs due to damage to the arcuate fasciculus.
164
What are the three steps in the information processing model?
Encoding, storage, retrieval
## Footnote
This model compares the brain's functions to that of a computer.
165
What is functional fixedness?
The tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized
## Footnote
This can create barriers to problem solving.
166
What is a mental set?
A pattern of approach for a given problem
## Footnote
An inappropriate mental set may negatively impact problem solving.
167
What are the types of problem solving?
* Trial-and-error
* Algorithms
* Deductive reasoning
* Inductive reasoning
## Footnote
Each type has different methods and applications.
168
What is the role of heuristics in decision making?
They are shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions
## Footnote
While useful, they can lead to erroneous or problematic decisions.
169
What is the definition of intuition in decision making?
A 'gut feeling' regarding a particular decision
## Footnote
Intuition can often be attributed to experience with similar situations.
170
What are the states of consciousness?
* Alertness
* Sleep
* Dreaming
* Altered states of consciousness
## Footnote
These states can affect perception and cognition.
171
What characterizes alertness?
The state of being awake and able to think, perceive, process, and express information
## Footnote
Beta and alpha waves predominately appear on EEG during this state.
172
What are the stages of sleep?
* Stage 1: Light sleep (theta waves)
* Stage 2: Slightly deeper sleep (theta waves, sleep spindles, K complexes)
* Stages 3 and 4: Deep sleep (delta waves)
* REM sleep: Paradoxical sleep
## Footnote
Different stages serve various functions, including memory consolidation.
173
What hormones are associated with maintaining circadian rhythms?
* Melatonin
* Cortisol
## Footnote
Melatonin promotes sleep, while cortisol promotes wakefulness.
174
What are dyssomnias?
Disorders in which the duration or timing of sleep is disturbed
## Footnote
Examples include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea.
175
What are parasomnias?
Disorders in which abnormal behaviors occur during sleep
## Footnote
Examples include night terrors and sleepwalking.
176
What are the main categories of consciousness-altering drugs?
* Depressants
* Stimulants
* Opiates
* Hallucinogens
## Footnote
Each category has different effects on the brain and behavior.
177
What is the effect of depressants on the brain?
They promote or mimic GABA activity
## Footnote
Examples include alcohol and benzodiazepines.
178
What is the effect of stimulants on the brain?
They increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin concentration at the synaptic cleft
## Footnote
Examples include amphetamines and cocaine.
179
What are the components of language?
* Phonology
* Morphology
* Semantics
* Syntax
* Pragmatics
## Footnote
Each component plays a vital role in language structure and use.
180
What does phonology refer to?
The actual sound of speech
## Footnote
It is a fundamental aspect of language.
181
What does morphology refer to?
The building blocks of words, such as rules for pluralization and past tense
## Footnote
Understanding morphology is essential for grasping language mechanics.
182
What does semantics refer to?
The meaning of words
## Footnote
Semantics is crucial for understanding language context.
183
What does syntax refer to?
The rules dictating word order
## Footnote
Syntax helps structure sentences correctly.
184
What does pragmatics refer to?
Changes in language delivery depending on context
## Footnote
Pragmatics is essential for effective communication.
185
What is the definition of deductive reasoning?
Drawing conclusions by integrating different pieces of evidence.
186
What does the representativeness heuristic involve?
Categorization and classification based on how well an individual example fits its category.
187
What is confirmation bias?
Occurs when people only seek information that reinforces their opinions.
188
What are Gardner's eight multiple intelligences?
* Linguistic
* Logical-mathematical
* Musical
* Visual-spatial
* Bodily-kinesthetic
* Interpersonal
* Intrapersonal
* Naturalist
189
What type of brain waves are primarily present in an EEG during REM sleep?
Beta waves.
190
Which brain waves are primarily present during Stage 1 sleep?
Theta waves.
191
What is the main characteristic of slow-wave sleep (SWS)?
Consists mainly of delta waves.
192
What is divided attention?
The ability to perform several tasks simultaneously.
193
What is automatic processing?
Allows the brain to focus on other tasks while performing routine actions.
194
What does parallel processing refer to?
The brain's ability to analyze imagery by processing several aspects independently and simultaneously.
195
What is the cognitive process dream theory?
Proposes that waking and dreaming states use the same mental systems within the brain.
196
What does the activation-synthesis theory state about dreams?
Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry.
197
What are some clinical features of marijuana use?
* Hunger
* Redness of the eyes
* Dry mouth
* Euphoria
198
What does syntax refer to in language?
How words are put together to form sentences and create meaning.
199
At what age is a child likely to speak in three-word sentences but not master fundamental rules of language?
Between two and three years old.
200
What does learning theory state regarding phonemes?
Parents reinforce phonemes that sound most like their language, resulting in referential preservation.
201
What does nativist theory posit about language acquisition?
There is a critical period during which language acquisition occurs.
202
What part of the brain governs the motor function of language?
Broca's area.
203
What happens if a stroke affects Broca's area?
Receptive language remains intact, but word formation is affected.
204
What is selective attention?
Focusing on a specific task while filtering out background stimuli.
205
What is the cocktail party phenomenon?
The ability to quickly reorient focus when hearing one's name in a noisy environment.
206
What percentage of dreaming occurs during REM sleep?
About 75%.
207
What is the formula for calculating the Stanford-Binet intelligence quotient (IQ)?
IQ = mental age / chronological age x 100.
