🧠MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review - 3 Flashcards
(163 cards)
1
Q
What is an example of dishabituation?
A
Increased startle response to a previously habituated stimulus after a different stimulus is presented.
2
Q
In Pavlov’s experiment, what was the conditioned stimulus?
A
The ringing bell.
3
Q
What is the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
A
A stimulus that naturally elicits a response, such as meat in Pavlov’s experiment.
4
Q
What does acquisition refer to in classical conditioning?
A
The process of turning a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus through association.
5
Q
What is habituation?
A
A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
6
Q
Fill in the blank: The response to a stimulus that has recovered after habituation is called _______.
A
dishabituation.
7
Q
What are the two types of associative learning focused on in the MCAT?
A
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
8
Q
Which type of learning involves pairing a behavior with a response?
A
Operant conditioning.
9
Q
What is the definition of a neutral stimulus?
A
A stimulus that does not initially produce a reflexive response.
10
Q
What is the innate or reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus called?
A
Unconditioned response.
11
Q
True or False: Dishabituation refers to changes in response to the new stimulus.
A
False.
12
Q
What is the significance of a stimulus that is too weak to elicit a response?
A
It is called a subthreshold stimulus.
13
Q
What is the effect of positive reinforcement on behavior?
A
It increases the likelihood of a behavior.
14
Q
Which mnemonic involves associating items with images that correspond to numbers?
A
Peg-words.
15
Q
What is the process of encoding?
A
The means through which information enters short-term memory.
16
Q
Fill in the blank: The method of encoding most conducive to later recall is _______.
A
semantic.
17
Q
In the context of memory, what does retrieval refer to?
A
The process of recalling stored information.
18
Q
What is the relationship between neuroplasticity and age in terms of brain adaptability?
A
The brain of a two-year-old is more adaptable due to higher neuroplasticity.
19
Q
What is a semantic memory?
A
Knowing facts and concepts, like parts of a car engine.
20
Q
What is the role of reinforcement schedules in operant conditioning?
A
They affect the relative frequency of behavioral responses.
21
Q
What are the components of the Pavlovian learning paradigm?
A
- Conditioned stimulus
- Unconditioned stimulus
- Conditioned response
- Unconditioned response
22
Q
What is an example of negative reinforcement?
A
Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.
23
Q
What is the effect of positive punishment on behavior?
A
It decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
24
Q
What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?
A
Classical conditioning associates stimuli, while operant conditioning associates behavior with consequences.
25
What is a conditioned stimulus?
A normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response called a conditioned response.
26
What is acquisition in classical conditioning?
The process of using a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.
27
What is an unconditioned response?
A natural response that does not require conditioning, such as salivation in response to food.
28
What is a conditioned response?
A learned response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented.
29
What does extinction refer to in classical conditioning?
The loss of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
30
What is spontaneous recovery?
The phenomenon where presenting an extinct conditioned stimulus again produces a weak conditioned response.
31
What is generalization in classical conditioning?
The broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response.
32
What is discrimination in classical conditioning?
The ability of an organism to distinguish between similar stimuli.
33
What is operant conditioning?
The study of how consequences of voluntary behaviors change the frequency of those behaviors.
34
Who is associated with the theory of behaviorism?
B. F. Skinner.
35
What are the two categories of reinforcers?
* Positive reinforcers
* Negative reinforcers
36
What is positive reinforcement?
The process of increasing the likelihood that a behavior will be performed by adding a positive consequence.
37
What is negative reinforcement?
The process of increasing the likelihood that a behavior will be performed by removing something unpleasant.
38
What is the difference between escape learning and avoidance learning?
Escape learning occurs when the unpleasant stimulus is present and the behavior removes it; avoidance learning occurs when the behavior is performed to prevent the unpleasant stimulus.
39
What is positive punishment?
Adding an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior.
40
What is negative punishment?
Removing a stimulus to reduce a behavior.
41
What are the four types of reinforcement schedules?
* Fixed-ratio (FR)
* Variable-ratio (VR)
* Fixed-interval (FI)
* Variable-interval (VI)
42
What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
Reinforces a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior.
43
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
Reinforces a behavior after a varying number of performances, with a constant average.
44
What is a fixed-interval schedule?
Reinforces the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed.
45
What is a variable-interval schedule?
Reinforces a behavior the first time it is performed after a varying interval of time.
46
What is shaping in operant conditioning?
The process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors that approach a desired response.
47
What is latent learning?
Learning that occurs without a reward but is demonstrated once a reward is introduced.
48
What is problem solving in the context of learning?
A method of learning that involves analyzing a situation and responding correctly rather than through trial-and-error.
49
What is preparedness in learning?
The predisposition of animals to learn behaviors that coincide with their natural instincts.
50
What is instinctive drift?
When animals revert to instinctive behaviors after learning new behaviors that are similar.
51
What is the predisposition to learn behaviors that align with natural instincts called?
Preparedness
## Footnote
Preparedness refers to the inherent tendencies of animals to learn certain behaviors more easily due to their natural instincts.
52
What occurs when an animal reverts to instinctive behavior after learning a new behavior?
Instinctive drift
## Footnote
Instinctive drift describes the phenomenon where learned behaviors conflict with natural instincts.
53
What was the outcome of the researchers' attempt to train raccoons to place coins in a piggy bank?
Unsuccessful
## Footnote
The raccoons reverted to their natural food-gathering instincts instead of completing the task.
54
What behavior did raccoons successfully learn to do instead of placing coins in a bank?
Place a ball in a basketball net
## Footnote
The size of the ball did not trigger the food-washing instinct in raccoons.
55
What is the process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others called?
Observational learning
## Footnote
Observational learning involves acquiring new behaviors by observing the actions of others.
56
What famous experiment studied observational learning in children?
Bobo doll experiment
## Footnote
Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated how children imitate aggressive behavior.
57
True or False: Observational learning only involves the imitation of behavior.
False
## Footnote
Observational learning can also teach individuals to avoid certain behaviors.
58
What was the result of children observing an adult getting scolded in later iterations of the Bobo doll experiment?
Less likely to be aggressive
## Footnote
Children who saw the adult being scolded were less prone to imitate aggressive behavior.
59
What percentage increase in aggressive behavior did the American Academy of Pediatrics attribute to observational learning from video games?
13 to 22%
## Footnote
This statistic highlights the ongoing debate regarding the influence of violent video games.
60
What are the neurons called that fire both when an individual performs an action and when observing someone else perform that action?
Mirror neurons
## Footnote
Mirror neurons are crucial for understanding and imitating behaviors and emotions.
61
Where are mirror neurons primarily located in the brain?
Frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex
## Footnote
These areas are involved in motor processes and empathy.
62
What role do mirror neurons play in addition to motor processes?
Empathy and vicarious emotions
## Footnote
They allow individuals to resonate with the emotions of others.
63
How do people learn acceptable behaviors according to observational learning?
By watching others perform them
## Footnote
Observational learning significantly influences behavior throughout a person's life.
64
What is the effect of consistent words and actions from a model on observational learning?
Strengthens observational learning
## Footnote
When words match actions, individuals are more likely to imitate the behavior.
65
What approach do many parents adopt that may contradict effective observational learning?
Do as I say, not as I do
## Footnote
Research indicates that children tend to imitate actions rather than words.
66
Fill in the blank: The smell of popcorn made the roommate nervous due to _______.
[Classical conditioning]
## Footnote
This scenario illustrates the principles of classical conditioning.
67
What is the conditioned stimulus in the popcorn story?
Smell of popcorn
## Footnote
This is the stimulus that was learned to elicit a response.
68
What is the unconditioned stimulus in the popcorn story?
[Popcorn popping]
## Footnote
This is the stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior conditioning.
69
What is the conditioned response in the popcorn story?
[Nervousness]
## Footnote
The conditioned response is learned through association with the conditioned stimulus.
70
What is the unconditioned response in the popcorn story?
[Surprise or fear]
## Footnote
This response occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
71
What is the difference between negative reinforcement and positive punishment?
Negative reinforcement: [removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior]; Positive punishment: [adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior]
## Footnote
These concepts are key in understanding behavior modification.
72
What are the three modes of encoding from strongest to weakest?
1. Semantic encoding
2. Visual encoding
3. Acoustic encoding
## Footnote
Semantic encoding is the strongest form of encoding, while visual encoding is considered the weakest.
73
What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?
Maintenance rehearsal is the repetition of information to keep it in working memory, while elaborative rehearsal involves associating new information with existing knowledge for better retention.
## Footnote
Elaborative rehearsal improves long-term memory retention by linking new information to personal experiences.
74
How do learning environments impact recall?
Learning environments can affect recall by providing context that enhances memory retrieval.
## Footnote
Contextual cues can lead to improved memory performance.
75
What are the different types of human memory?
* Sensory Memory
* Short-term Memory
* Working Memory
* Long-term Memory
* Explicit Memory
* Implicit Memory
* Declarative Memory
* Procedural Memory
* Episodic Memory
* Semantic Memory
## Footnote
These types categorize human memory based on duration and the nature of the information stored.
76
What is encoding in the context of memory?
Encoding is the process of putting new information into memory.
## Footnote
It involves both automatic and controlled processing.
77
What is automatic processing?
Automatic processing is unintentional cognitive processing where information is passively absorbed from the environment.
## Footnote
Examples include noticing the temperature or the route while walking.
78
What is controlled (effortful) processing?
Controlled processing is the active effort to gain information, such as creating flashcards for studying.
## Footnote
This type of processing is necessary for effective learning and retention.
79
What is semantic encoding?
Semantic encoding is the process of linking new information to existing knowledge in a meaningful context.
## Footnote
It is the strongest form of encoding and is enhanced by the self-reference effect.
80
What is the self-reference effect?
The self-reference effect is the phenomenon where information is better recalled when it is related to oneself.
## Footnote
This effect emphasizes the importance of personal relevance in memory retention.
81
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Maintenance rehearsal is the repetition of information to keep it in working memory and prevent forgetting.
## Footnote
It is a technique used to extend the duration of short-term memory.
82
What are mnemonics?
Mnemonics are memory aids, often in the form of acronyms or rhyming phrases, that help organize information for easier recall.
## Footnote
Examples include the method of loci and the peg-word system.
83
What is the method of loci?
The method of loci involves associating items in a list with specific locations along a memorized route.
## Footnote
This technique is effective for memorizing large lists in order.
84
What is the peg-word system?
The peg-word system associates numbers with items that rhyme or resemble the numbers for easier recall.
## Footnote
This method helps in memorizing lists by linking them to a pre-memorized peg-list.
85
What is chunking in memory?
Chunking is a memory trick that involves grouping individual elements into larger, meaningful units.
## Footnote
This technique can help increase memory capacity by organizing information.
86
What is sensory memory?
Sensory memory is the brief storage of sensory information with high accuracy, lasting less than one second.
## Footnote
It includes both iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory.
87
What is iconic memory?
Iconic memory refers to the fast-decaying memory of visual stimuli.
## Footnote
It is a type of sensory memory that fades quickly.
88
What is echoic memory?
Echoic memory is the fast-decaying memory of auditory stimuli.
## Footnote
Like iconic memory, it is a form of sensory memory.
89
What is the 7 ± 2 rule in short-term memory?
The 7 ± 2 rule states that the average number of items an individual can hold in short-term memory is approximately seven.
## Footnote
This rule highlights the limitations of short-term memory capacity.
90
What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?
The hippocampus is primarily responsible for the consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory.
## Footnote
It plays a crucial role in both short-term and long-term memory processes.
91
What is working memory?
Working memory is a form of memory that allows for the temporary holding and manipulation of information.
## Footnote
It involves integration of short-term memory, attention, and executive function.
92
What is elaborative rehearsal?
Elaborative rehearsal is the process of linking new information to existing knowledge for better long-term retention.
## Footnote
This method is more effective than maintenance rehearsal for consolidating memories.
93
What is eidetic memory?
Eidetic memory is the ability to recall an image with high precision after only a brief exposure.
## Footnote
It is a rare phenomenon and is mostly observed in children.
94
What is the visuospatial sketchpad?
The visuospatial sketchpad is a component of working memory that allows for the storage and manipulation of visual and spatial information.
## Footnote
This concept is part of Baddeley and Hitch's three-part working memory model.
95
What does the Area Under the Curve (AUC) score measure in recognition memory?
The AUC score measures the relative difference in recognition between old and new melodies.
## Footnote
A score of 1.0 indicates perfect discrimination, while 0.5 indicates chance performance.
96
What does a higher AUC score indicate in the context of recognition?
Better recognition, meaning people get better at recognizing melodies as they age.
97
What are the two subdivisions of long-term memory?
* Explicit memory
* Implicit memory
98
What is explicit memory?
The encoding of facts and experiences that require conscious recall.
99
What type of explicit memory involves experiences?
Episodic memory
100
What is implicit memory also known as?
Nondeclarative memory
101
What does implicit memory include?
* Procedural memory
* Priming
102
What is procedural memory?
Unconscious memory of skills required to complete tasks.
103
What is positive priming?
When exposure to the first stimulus improves processing of the second stimulus.
104
What is the difference between recall and recognition?
Recall is retrieving previously learned information, while recognition is identifying previously learned information.
105
What is the spacing effect?
The phenomenon where information is better retained when study sessions are spaced out over time.
106
What is the serial-position effect?
The tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle.
107
What is source amnesia?
The inability to remember where, when, or how one obtained knowledge.
108
What is Alzheimer's disease characterized by?
Progressive dementia, memory loss, and atrophy of the brain.
109
What are neurofibrillary tangles and β-amyloid plaques associated with?
Alzheimer's disease
110
What is Korsakoff's syndrome caused by?
Thiamine deficiency in the brain.
111
What is confabulation?
The process of creating vivid but fabricated memories to fill in gaps.
112
What is agnosia?
The loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds.
113
What does decay refer to in memory?
The natural loss of memories over time.
114
What is proactive interference?
Old information interfering with new learning.
115
What is retroactive interference?
New information causing forgetting of old information.
116
What is the significance of the age range in memory ability?
There is a larger range of memory ability for 70-year-olds than for 20-year-olds.
117
What do older individuals often report as their most vivid memories?
Events that occurred in their teens and 20s.
118
Fill in the blank: The brain organizes ideas into a _______.
semantic network
119
What is the context effect in memory retrieval?
Memory is aided by being in the same physical location where encoding took place.
120
What is state-dependent memory?
Better recall when in the same mental state as when the information was learned.
121
What is the curve of forgetting?
The phenomenon where recall falls sharply after learning but levels off over time.
122
What age group tends to have a larger range of memory ability?
70-year-olds
## Footnote
This suggests variability in memory performance as people age.
123
What do older individuals often recall as their most vivid memories?
Events from their teens and 20s
## Footnote
Psychologists interpret this as a peak period for memory encoding.
124
Which types of memory remain strong in older adults?
Recognition and skill-based memory
## Footnote
Semantic memory also remains robust due to a larger semantic network.
125
What type of prospective memory tends to decline with age?
Time-based prospective memory
## Footnote
An example is remembering to take medication at a specific time.
126
What is reproductive memory?
Accurate recall of past events
## Footnote
This concept contrasts with reconstructive memory.
127
What is reconstructive memory?
Memory recall influenced by cognitive processes
## Footnote
It explains differing recollections of the same event.
128
What is a false memory?
A memory that incorrectly recalls actual events or recalls events that never occurred
## Footnote
False memories can arise from various factors affecting recall.
129
What is the misinformation effect?
Recall becomes less accurate due to outside information
## Footnote
An example includes misleading descriptions after an event.
130
What is an intrusion error?
False memories that include a false detail from related memories
## Footnote
This occurs when two memories share a theme.
131
What is source-monitoring error?
Confusion between semantic and episodic memory
## Footnote
It happens when details of an event are misattributed to the wrong context.
132
What is neuroplasticity?
The brain's ability to form new connections rapidly
## Footnote
Neuroplasticity is most pronounced in young children.
133
What is synaptic pruning?
The process of removing weak neural connections
## Footnote
This helps to increase the efficiency of the brain's processing.
134
What is long-term potentiation?
Strengthening of neural connections with increased neurotransmitter release
## Footnote
It is believed to be the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory.
135
What type of memory is explicit memory?
Declarative memory that stores facts and stories
## Footnote
It contrasts with implicit (nondeclarative) memory.
136
Which memory type is stronger: recognition or recall?
Recognition
## Footnote
Recognition is often more reliable than recall.
137
What can cause memories to be lost?
Disorders like Alzheimer's, decay, or interference
## Footnote
These factors can affect memory retention and retrieval.
138
What is associative learning?
Pairing together stimuli and responses
## Footnote
This includes classical and operant conditioning.
139
What is classical conditioning?
Pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus to produce a conditioned response
## Footnote
This process relies on repetition.
140
What does reinforcement do to behavior?
Increases the likelihood of a behavior
## Footnote
This can be positive or negative reinforcement.
141
What does punishment do to behavior?
Decreases the likelihood of a behavior
## Footnote
Punishment can also be positive or negative.
142
What is observational learning?
Acquisition of behavior by watching others
## Footnote
This is also known as modeling.
143
What is the strongest mode of information encoding?
Semantic encoding
## Footnote
It is stronger than acoustic and visual encoding.
144
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory
## Footnote
This is different from elaborative rehearsal.
145
What is elaborative rehearsal?
Association of new information with existing knowledge
## Footnote
This method is more effective for long-term memory retention.
146
Why is studying for the MCAT while listening to music not advisable?
It may compete for attention and reduce focus
## Footnote
Studying in a quiet environment can aid recall.
147
What factors can affect eyewitness testimony?
Question phrasing, shared information, misinformation effect, source-monitoring error
## Footnote
These can lead to inaccuracies in recall.
148
What is neuroplasticity?
The ability of the brain to form new connections rapidly
## Footnote
The brain is most plastic in young children, and plasticity quickly drops off after childhood.
149
What does pruning refer to in neuroscience?
The removal of weak neural connections
150
What is long-term potentiation?
The strengthening of memory connections through increased neurotransmitter release and receptor density
151
True or False: The sound of a can opener normally produces a response on its own.
False
152
What is generalization in the context of conditioned responses?
The process by which similar stimuli can produce the same conditioned response
153
What is avoidance learning?
A type of negative reinforcement in which a behavior is increased to prevent an unpleasant future consequence
154
Fill-in-the-blank: Long term potentiation is believed to be the neurophysiological basis of _______.
long-term memory
155
What happens in a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement?
The desired behavior is rewarded the first time it is exhibited after the fixed interval has elapsed
156
What is shaping in behavioral psychology?
Teaching complicated, multistage behaviors through successive approximations
157
What is controlled processing?
The process that requires effortful processing to create long-term memories
158
What type of encoding is considered the strongest?
Semantic encoding
159
What is iconic memory?
A type of sensory memory associated with visual stimuli
160
What is the 7 ± 2 rule?
A characteristic of short-term memory capacity
161
What does semantic memory refer to?
The category of long-term memory that refers to recall of facts
162
What is state-dependent recall?
Recall that is influenced by the internal states of the individual
163
True or False: Older adults may have trouble with time-based prospective memory.
True
