🧠MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review - 2 Flashcards
(177 cards)
1
Q
What does sensation refer to in psychology?
A
The process of transduction, converting physical information into electrical signals.
2
Q
What is perception in the context of sensory information?
A
The processing of sensory information to understand its significance.
3
Q
Fill in the blank: Sensation is performed by _______ in the peripheral nervous system.
A
[sensory receptors]
4
Q
What are distal stimuli?
A
Physical objects outside of the body that produce stimuli.
5
Q
What are proximal stimuli?
A
Sensory-stimulating byproducts that directly interact with sensory receptors.
6
Q
Which receptors respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum?
A
Photoreceptors.
7
Q
True or False: Adaptation refers to the ability to sense stimuli against one’s own skin.
A
False.
8
Q
What type of receptors respond to painful or noxious stimuli?
A
Nociceptors.
9
Q
What is the relationship between sensation and perception according to the text?
A
Sensation is the raw signal, while perception is the interpretation of that signal.
10
Q
What is the role of sensory ganglia?
A
They are collections of neuron cell bodies that transmit sensory information to the central nervous system.
11
Q
Which receptors respond to changes in temperature?
A
Thermoreceptors.
12
Q
Fill in the blank: The ability to sense stimuli against one’s own skin is known as _______.
A
[somatosensation]
13
Q
What does Weber’s law pertain to?
A
The relationship between the magnitude of a stimulus and the smallest detectable difference.
14
Q
What phenomenon describes the feeling of familiarity when encountering a new place?
A
Deja vu.
15
Q
Which sensory receptors respond to volatile compounds?
A
Olfactory receptors.
16
Q
What is the significance of the threshold of conscious perception?
A
It determines the minimum level of stimulus required for a person to be consciously aware of it.
17
Q
What is the main function of kinesthetic sense?
A
To sense the position and movement of body parts.
18
Q
Which part of the eye is responsible for gathering and focusing light?
A
Cornea.
19
Q
True or False: The same sensation can produce different perceptions in different individuals.
A
True.
20
Q
What is the main function of mechanoreceptors?
A
To respond to pressure or movement.
21
Q
Fill in the blank: Chemicals that compel behavior after binding with chemoreceptors are known as _______.
A
[pheromones]
22
Q
What does the concept of psychophysics study?
A
The relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke.
23
Q
What are the primary functions of taste receptors?
A
To respond to dissolved compounds.
24
Q
What is the significance of perception in sensory information processing?
A
Perception is significant as it involves interpreting sensory information sent to the central nervous system in the form of action potentials
25
What is a threshold in the context of perception?
A threshold is the minimum amount of a stimulus needed to produce a difference in perception
26
What are the three main types of thresholds?
* Absolute threshold
* Threshold of conscious perception
* Difference threshold
27
Define absolute threshold.
The absolute threshold is the minimum stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system
28
What is the absolute threshold for sweet taste?
One teaspoon of sucrose dissolved in two gallons of water
29
How is the absolute threshold for light determined?
It can detect the light of one candle burning thirty miles away on a clear, dark night
30
What is the difference between absolute threshold and threshold of conscious perception?
Absolute threshold refers to the minimum stimulus needed to be sensed, while threshold of conscious perception refers to the level of intensity needed for conscious awareness of a stimulus
31
What is subliminal perception?
Subliminal perception refers to signals that reach the central nervous system but do not reach conscious awareness
32
Define difference threshold.
The difference threshold is the minimum change in magnitude required for an observer to perceive that two stimuli are different
33
What is the just-noticeable difference (jnd)?
The just-noticeable difference is another term for the difference threshold
34
What is Weber's law?
Weber's law states that the difference threshold is proportional and must be computed as a percentage
35
What factors influence perception according to signal detection theory?
* Internal factors (memory, motives, expectations)
* External factors (environmental conditions)
36
What are the possible outcomes in a signal detection experiment?
* Hit
* Miss
* False alarm
* Correct negative
37
What is adaptation in the context of sensory perception?
Adaptation refers to the change in sensitivity to a stimulus over time, involving both physiological and psychological components
38
What physiological response occurs in the eyes in response to light changes?
Pupils dilate in the dark and constrict in the light
39
What is the primary function of the retina?
To convert incoming photons of light into electrical signals for the brain to process
40
Which part of the eye is responsible for focusing light?
The lens
41
What are the two muscles in the iris and their functions?
* Dilator pupillae - opens the pupil
* Constrictor pupillae - constricts the pupil
42
What is the role of the ciliary body?
The ciliary body produces aqueous humor and adjusts the shape of the lens for focusing
43
What is the function of the vitreous humor?
To support the retina
44
How do we perceive differences in sound frequencies?
Differences in sound frequencies can be perceived when they exceed the just-noticeable difference, which is about 3 Hz for many listeners
45
What is the phenomenon called when the lens of the eye changes shape to focus on an image as the distance varies?
Accommodation
46
What is the function of the vitreous humor?
Supports the retina
47
What is the primary function of the retina?
Convert incoming photons of light to electrical signals
48
What theory states that the retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors?
Duplexity or duplicity theory of vision
49
How many cones and rods are approximately in the human retina?
6 million cones and 120 million rods
50
What are the three forms of cones named for?
Wavelengths of light they best absorb: short (S, blue), medium (M, green), long (L, red)
51
In reduced illumination, which type of photoreceptor is more functional?
Rods
52
What pigment do all rod cells contain?
Rhodopsin
53
Where is the highest concentration of cones located in the retina?
Macula, specifically the fovea
54
What is the optic disk?
A region of the retina devoid of photoreceptors, creating a blind spot
55
What cells do rods and cones synapse with?
Bipolar cells
56
What do bipolar cells synapse with?
Ganglion cells
57
What is the main consequence of the arrangement of cells in the retina?
Pruning of details as information from photoreceptors is combined
58
What is the role of amacrine and horizontal cells in the retina?
Accentuation of slight differences between visual information in each bipolar cell
59
What do visual pathways refer to?
Anatomical connections between the eyes and brain and the flow of visual information
60
What happens at the optic chiasm?
Nasal fibers from the left and right eyes cross paths
61
What is the significance of the nasal and temporal fibers in visual processing?
Nasal fibers cross at the optic chiasm while temporal fibers do not
62
What is the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)?
A part of the thalamus where some optic nerve fibers synapse
63
What is visual parallel processing?
The brain's ability to analyze information regarding color, form, motion, and depth simultaneously
64
What type of cells are responsible for detecting color?
Cones
65
What are parvocellular cells specialized for?
High color spatial resolution and detecting fine detail
66
What are magnocellular cells specialized for?
Detecting motion with high temporal resolution
67
How does depth perception work?
Based on discrepancies between inputs from the two eyes
68
What type of neurons are responsible for comparing inputs to each hemisphere in depth perception?
Binocular neurons
69
What is the primary function of binocular neurons?
To compare the inputs from each hemisphere and detect differences in visual information.
70
What role do feature detectors play in the visual cortex?
They detect specific individual features of an object in the visual field.
71
Fill in the blank: The response to a stimulus, such as a stop sign, is stored for future _______.
retrieval
72
List the functions of the cornea.
It helps to focus light onto the retina.
73
List the functions of the pupil.
It regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
74
List the functions of the iris.
It controls the size of the pupil and the amount of light that enters.
75
List the functions of the ciliary body.
It controls the shape of the lens for focusing.
76
List the functions of the Canal of Schlemm.
It drains aqueous humor from the eye.
77
List the functions of the lens.
It focuses light onto the retina.
78
List the functions of the retina.
It contains photoreceptors that convert light into neural signals.
79
List the functions of the sclera.
It provides structure and protection to the eye.
80
What is parallel processing in the context of visual information?
The simultaneous activation of multiple feature detectors to process different aspects of a visual stimulus.
81
In feature detection, what type of cells are responsible for color?
Cone cells.
82
In feature detection, what type of cells are responsible for form?
Complex cells.
83
In feature detection, what type of cells are responsible for motion?
Motion detectors.
84
In feature detection, what type of cells are responsible for depth?
Binocular neurons.
85
What are the two types of acceleration detected by the vestibular sense?
Linear acceleration and rotational acceleration
## Footnote
These accelerations are critical for balance and spatial orientation.
86
What is the main function of the pinna (auricle)?
To channel sound waves into the external auditory canal
## Footnote
This structure directs sound waves to the tympanic membrane.
87
What are the three smallest bones in the body located in the middle ear called?
Ossicles
## Footnote
These include the malleus, incus, and stapes.
88
What structure in the inner ear contains receptors for hearing?
Cochlea
## Footnote
The cochlea is spiral-shaped and houses the organ of Corti.
89
What fluid fills the membranous labyrinth?
Endolymph
## Footnote
It is potassium-rich and essential for the function of hair cells.
90
What is the role of the tympanic membrane?
To vibrate in phase with incoming sound waves
## Footnote
The vibration frequency corresponds to the frequency of the sound wave.
91
What is the function of the Eustachian tube?
To equalize pressure between the middle ear and the environment
## Footnote
This connection helps maintain proper ear function.
92
How does the cochlea transmit vibrations to the auditory nerve?
Vibrations in perilymph cause movement of the basilar membrane, stimulating hair cells
## Footnote
Hair cells transduce mechanical vibrations into electrical signals.
93
What is place theory in relation to sound perception?
The location of a hair cell on the basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch
## Footnote
Higher frequencies vibrate hair cells closer to the oval window.
94
What structures are located in the vestibule?
Utricle and saccule
## Footnote
These structures are sensitive to linear acceleration.
95
What is the role of the semicircular canals?
To detect rotational acceleration
## Footnote
They are arranged perpendicularly and contain hair cells in the ampulla.
96
What is the auditory pathway from the ear to the brain?
Vestibulocochlear nerve → brainstem → medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) → auditory cortex
## Footnote
This pathway is crucial for sound processing.
97
True or False: Smell passes through the thalamus before reaching the brain.
False
## Footnote
Smell travels directly to higher-order brain centers without filtering.
98
What are the four main modalities of somatosensation?
* Pressure
* Vibration
* Temperature
* Pain
## Footnote
These modalities encompass the sense of touch.
99
Fill in the blank: The _______ is the part of the ear that channels sound waves to the tympanic membrane.
External auditory canal
100
What is the significance of the round window in the cochlea?
It allows perilymph to move within the cochlea
## Footnote
This movement is essential for sound transmission.
101
What is the function of hair cells in the organ of Corti?
To transduce physical stimuli into electrical signals
## Footnote
These signals are sent to the central nervous system via the auditory nerve.
102
What is the purpose of otoliths in the utricle and saccule?
To resist motion during linear acceleration
## Footnote
This resistance stimulates hair cells to send signals to the brain.
103
Which part of the brain is involved in sound localization?
Superior olive
## Footnote
This structure helps determine the direction of sound.
104
What does the auditory cortex process?
Sound information
## Footnote
It is located in the temporal lobe.
105
What happens to hair cells when they are stimulated by sound vibrations?
Ion channels open, causing a receptor potential
## Footnote
This process is crucial for converting mechanical energy into neural signals.
106
True or False: The perception of pitch is solely based on the frequency of sound waves.
False
## Footnote
Perception can also be influenced by familiarity with the sound.
107
What is the only sense that does not pass through the thalamus?
Smell
## Footnote
Smell travels directly to higher-order brain centers without being filtered through the thalamus.
108
What are the main components of the olfactory pathway?
Odor molecules → nasal passages → olfactory nerves → olfactory bulb → olfactory tract → higher regions of the brain
## Footnote
The olfactory pathway is essential for processing smells.
109
What type of compounds do olfactory chemoreceptors respond to?
Volatile or aerosolized compounds
## Footnote
These compounds are necessary for the sense of smell to function.
110
What are pheromones?
Chemicals secreted by one animal that influence the behavior of another
## Footnote
Pheromones play a significant role in animal social, foraging, and sexual behaviors.
111
How many basic tastes are there?
Five
## Footnote
The basic tastes are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.
112
What is the difference between taste and flavor?
Taste refers to basic sensations; flavor is the interplay between smell and taste
## Footnote
Nonchemical stimuli like texture and mood also affect flavor.
113
What are the four modalities of somatosensation?
Pressure, vibration, pain, temperature
## Footnote
These modalities encompass the various sensations we experience through touch.
114
What are the types of receptors involved in somatosensation?
* Pacinian corpuscles: deep pressure and vibration
* Meissner corpuscles: light touch
* Merkel cells: deep pressure and texture
* Ruffini endings: stretch
* Free nerve endings: pain and temperature
## Footnote
Each receptor type responds to specific tactile stimuli.
115
What is a two-point threshold?
The minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation for them to be felt as distinct
## Footnote
The two-point threshold varies based on nerve density in different skin areas.
116
What is physiological zero?
The normal temperature of the skin, between 86° and 97°F
## Footnote
Objects are judged as cold or warm relative to this baseline.
117
What is the gate theory of pain?
A mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting pain perception
## Footnote
This theory explains why other tactile stimuli can influence the sensation of pain.
118
What is kinesthetic sense also known as?
Proprioception
## Footnote
It refers to the ability to sense the position of one's body in space.
119
What is bottom-up processing?
Object recognition through parallel processing and feature detection
## Footnote
This type of processing builds a cohesive image from individual sensory stimuli.
120
What is top-down processing?
Object recognition driven by memories and expectations
## Footnote
This allows for quicker recognition of objects based on prior knowledge.
121
What are monocular cues?
Visual cues that require one eye
## Footnote
Examples include relative size, interposition, and linear perspective.
122
What is retinal disparity?
The slight difference in images projected on the two retinas
## Footnote
This binocular cue helps in depth perception.
123
What is the law of proximity?
Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
## Footnote
This is one of the key Gestalt principles of perceptual organization.
124
What is the law of similarity?
Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
## Footnote
This principle explains how we perceive patterns and groupings in stimuli.
125
What does the law of closure state?
When a space is enclosed by a contour, it tends to be perceived as a complete figure
## Footnote
This principle helps us see incomplete shapes as whole objects.
126
What does the law of prägnanz dictate?
Perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible
## Footnote
This law governs how we perceive visual stimuli.
127
What is color constancy?
The ability to perceive an object as the same color under different lighting conditions
## Footnote
This is an example of perceptual constancy in action.
128
What is sensation?
The conversion, or transduction, of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from the internal and external environment into electrical signals in the nervous system.
129
What is perception?
The processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance.
130
What are sensory receptors?
Nerves that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals.
131
What are sensory neurons associated with?
Sensory ganglia: collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system.
132
What is a threshold in sensory processing?
The minimum stimulus that causes a change in signal transduction.
133
What is the absolute threshold?
The minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system.
134
What is the threshold of conscious perception?
The minimum of stimulus energy that will create a signal large enough in size and long enough in duration to be brought into awareness.
135
What is the difference threshold (just-noticeable difference)?
The minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference.
136
What does Weber's law state?
The just-noticeable difference for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus, and this proportion is constant over most of the range of possible stimuli.
137
What is signal detection theory?
It refers to the effects of nonsensory factors, such as experiences, motives, and expectations, on perception of stimuli.
138
What does adaptation refer to in sensory processing?
A decrease in response to a stimulus over time.
139
What does the cornea do?
Gathers and filters incoming light.
140
What is the role of the iris?
Divides the front of the eye into anterior and posterior chambers and controls the size of the pupil.
141
What is the function of the lens in the eye?
Refracts incoming light to focus it on the retina.
142
What is the retina responsible for?
Detecting light and dark; it contains rods and cones.
143
Where are rods and cones primarily located in the retina?
Mostly cones in the macula, with the fovea containing only cones.
144
What is the visual pathway from the eye to the visual cortex?
Optic nerve → optic chiasm → optic tracts → lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus → visual radiations → visual cortex.
145
What is parallel processing in vision?
The ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, form, motion, and depth.
146
What do magnocellular cells detect?
Motion, with low spatial resolution and high temporal resolution.
147
What is the main function of the semicircular canals?
Detecting rotational acceleration.
148
What are pheromones?
Chemicals given off by animals that affect social, foraging, and sexual behavior in other members of that species.
149
What are the five modalities of taste?
* Sweet
* Sour
* Salty
* Bitter
* Umami (savory)
150
What does somatosensation refer to?
The four touch modalities: pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature.
151
What is physiological zero?
The normal temperature of the skin to which objects are compared to determine if they feel 'warm' or 'cold.'
152
What are nociceptors responsible for?
Pain perception.
153
What is kinesthetic sense (proprioception)?
The ability to tell where one's body is in three-dimensional space.
154
What is bottom-up processing?
Recognition of objects by parallel processing and feature detection.
155
What is top-down processing?
Recognition of an object by memories and expectations, with little attention to detail.
156
What does the law of proximity state?
Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit.
157
What does the law of similarity state?
Objects that are similar appear to be grouped together.
158
What is subjective contours?
The perception of nonexistent edges in figures, based on surrounding visual cues.
159
What does the law of closure state?
When a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed line.
160
What does the law of pragnanz state?
Perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible.
161
What is feature detection?
The phenomenon related to identifying specific features of a stimulus.
162
What is the retina responsible for?
It is the part of the eye upon which images are projected, converting electromagnetic radiation into electrical signals.
163
What does somatosensation refer to?
The various modalities of touch: pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain.
164
What is kinesthetic sense?
The ability to tell where one's body is in space.
165
What does vestibular sense detect?
Detection of linear and rotational acceleration in the middle ear.
166
What is chemoreception?
The process of sensing chemicals in the environment.
167
What are the five tastes?
* Sweet
* Sour
* Salty
* Bitter
* Umami
168
What is endolymph?
The potassium-rich fluid that bathes the hair cells of the inner ear.
169
Where is perilymph found?
In the space between the membranous labyrinth and the bony labyrinth.
170
What are pheromones?
Volatile chemicals given off by organisms that influence behavior by binding with olfactory chemoreceptors.
171
What is the kinesthetic sense also known as?
Proprioception.
172
Where are the sensors for proprioception predominantly found?
In the muscles and joints.
173
What is top-down processing?
The cognitive process of using recognition and expectations to interpret stimuli.
174
What is bottom-up processing?
The analysis of each detail individually before creating a cohesive image.
175
What are Gestalt principles?
The basis for many optical illusions, including the tendency to see continuity even when lines are unconnected.
176
What is the optic chiasm?
The area where crossing fibers from each optic nerve meet.
177
What is bitemporal hemianopsia?
A condition caused by the inversion of images on the nasal half of the retina.
