🧠MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review - 12 Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of social class?
A
A category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society
2
Q
What does social cohesion refer to?
A
The solidarity and sense of connectedness among different social groups and social classes in society
3
Q
How is socioeconomic status determined?
A
By merit (achieved status) and external characteristics like skin color and gender (ascribed status)
4
Q
What is the difference between ascribed status and achieved status?
A
Ascribed status derives from identifiable characteristics; achieved status is acquired via individual efforts
5
Q
What is an example of a factor that influences achieved status?
A
Educational attainment
6
Q
What types of systems stratify by ascribed socioeconomic status?
A
Caste and estate systems
7
Q
What are the three major classes in social stratification?
A
- Upper class
- Middle class
- Lower class
8
Q
What does the upper class typically possess?
A
Great wealth, recognized reputations, and lifestyles
9
Q
What is the socioeconomic gradient in health?
A
The proportional improvement in healthcare as one moves up in socioeconomic status
10
Q
What is prestige?
A
The amount of positive regard society has for a given person or idea
11
Q
What is power in the context of social stratification?
A
The ability to affect others’ behavior through real or perceived rewards and punishments
12
Q
What does class consciousness refer to?
A
The organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action
13
Q
What is false consciousness?
A
A misperception of one’s actual position within society
14
Q
What does anomie refer to?
A
A lack of widely accepted social norms and the breakdown of social bonds
15
Q
What is strain theory?
A
A focus on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance
16
Q
What are two primary sources of social trust?
A
- Social norms of reciprocity
- Social networks
17
Q
What is social capital?
A
The investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards
18
Q
What are the two types of social inequality created by social networks?
A
- Situational (socioeconomic advantage)
- Positional (based on network centrality)
19
Q
What is the effect of anomic conditions on social capital?
A
They accelerate the decline of social inclusion and obstruct opportunities to acquire social capital
20
Q
Fill in the blank: Social stratification focuses on social inequalities and studies the basic question of who gets what and _______.
A
[why]
21
Q
True or False: The middle class can be divided into upper-middle, middle-middle, and lower-middle classes.
A
True
22
Q
What is social capital?
A
The benefits one receives from group association
23
Q
What is cultural capital?
A
The benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills
24
Q
What are strong ties?
A
Peer group and kinship contacts that are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful
25
What are weak ties?
Social connections that are personally superficial but large in number, providing connections to a wide range of individuals
26
True or False: Low social capital leads to greater social inequality.
True
27
What is social inequality?
The unequal distribution of resources and opportunities among different social groups
28
Which groups are often considered disadvantaged?
* Racially and ethnically underrepresented groups
* Households headed by women
* Older adults
29
What is social mobility?
The ability to move up or down from one social class to another
30
What is intragenerational mobility?
Changes in social status that happen within a person's lifetime
31
What is intergenerational mobility?
Changes in social status from parents to children
32
What is meritocracy?
A social structure in which intellectual talent and achievement are means for a person to advance up the social ladder
33
What does upward mobility indicate?
A positive change in a person's social status, resulting in a higher position
34
What does downward mobility indicate?
A negative change in a person's social status, resulting in a lower position
35
What is horizontal mobility?
A change in occupation or lifestyle that keeps an individual within the same social class
36
What is poverty?
Low socioeconomic status and a lack of possessions or financial resources
37
What is social reproduction?
The process by which social inequality, especially poverty, is passed on from one generation to the next
38
What is absolute poverty?
A socioeconomic condition where people do not have enough resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic life necessities
39
What is relative poverty?
A condition where people have less income and wealth in comparison to the larger population in which they live
40
What is the official poverty line in the United States based on?
The government's calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life
41
True or False: The official poverty line takes into account geographical differences in living costs.
False
42
What can social exclusion create for disadvantaged groups?
Obstacles to achieving self-help, independence, and self-respect
43
What is the problem with the official definition of poverty?
It fails to take into account geographical variables that impact the value of money in different locations.
44
What is social exclusion?
A sense of powerlessness when individuals feel segregated and isolated from society.
45
Who experiences magnified feelings of alienation and powerlessness?
Disadvantaged groups, such as the racially and ethnically underrepresented.
46
What does spatial inequality focus on?
Social stratification across territories and their populations.
47
How does where one lives affect access to resources?
It plays a major role in the distribution of valuable resources.
48
What can spatial inequality amplify?
The effects of poverty, leading to population segregation and the formation of destitute neighborhoods.
49
What are the three levels to explore spatial inequality?
* Residential
* Environmental
* Global
50
How does residential segregation affect individuals?
It has a substantial effect on how people interact, cooperate, and advance.
51
What do urban environments offer compared to rural areas?
A greater range of opportunities and less likelihood of falling into familial occupational ties.
52
What are key attributes of low-income neighborhoods?
* Greater poverty
* Higher unemployment rates
* Lower-quality schools
* Higher rates of homelessness
53
What is suburbanization?
The migration pattern of the middle classes to suburban communities.
54
What is urban decay?
The deterioration of a previously functional portion of a city over time.
55
What fuels urban renewal?
Gentrification, when upper- and middle-class populations renovate neighborhoods.
56
What environmental risks do low-income areas face?
Exposure to hazardous waste-producing plants and toxic waste dumps.
57
What is the world system theory?
It categorizes countries and emphasizes the inequalities of the division of labor at the global level.
58
What are core nations focused on?
Higher skills and higher paying productions.
59
What conditions do many people in semi-peripheral and peripheral nations live under?
Less than the equivalent of $1.25 per day.
60
What major impact has globalization had on local communities?
Massive restructuring of industry and trade patterns.
61
What has exacerbated global inequality?
An unprecedented large population spike.
62
What is a common health issue faced by those in poor living conditions?
Increased rates of illness and disease.
63
Fill in the blank: Social exclusion can create further obstacles to achieving _______.
self-help
64
True or False: Urban areas generally have less crime than rural areas.
False
65
What is Waitzkin’s 'second sickness'?
An exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice
## Footnote
It results from the interplay of socioeconomic factors and health disparities.
66
Why are women more likely to have better health profiles than men?
Women generally have higher life expectancy and lower mortality rates from certain diseases
## Footnote
This trend is observed globally.
67
What does social epidemiology study?
The ways in which health and disease correlate to social advantages and disadvantages
68
Define incidence in epidemiology.
The number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time
69
Define prevalence in epidemiology.
The total number of cases of an illness overall per population in a given amount of time
70
What is morbidity?
The burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease
71
What is mortality?
Deaths caused by a given disease
72
What landmark investigation linked geography with disease in the 19th century?
John Snow's investigation of a cholera outbreak in London in 1854
73
What did the Black Report of 1980 reveal?
Class differences in health still exist, with professional groups having longer life expectancies than working-class people
74
What are some health disparities faced by low-income groups?
* Poorer health outcomes
* Higher rates of life-shortening diseases
* Higher infant mortality rates
* More likely to be uninsured
75
Which racial group has the lowest life expectancy?
African American males
76
True or False: Hispanic Americans have lower mortality rates from cancer, heart disease, and infant mortality compared to White Americans.
True
77
What factors contribute to men's lower life expectancy?
* Risk-taking behavior
* Dangerous jobs
* Higher rates of alcohol use
78
What is the purpose of Medicare?
To cover patients over 65, those with end-stage renal disease, and those with ALS
79
What is the purpose of Medicaid?
To cover patients who are in significant financial need
80
What are some barriers to healthcare for low-income groups?
* Poor access to quality medical care
* Poor nutrition
* Feeling less in control of life circumstances
81
What is the impact of race and ethnicity on healthcare access?
Underrepresented and low-income groups tend to face greater barriers to care and poorer quality of care
82
What biases may affect the treatment of overweight and obese patients?
Doctors may assume being overweight is the sole cause of health problems, leading to misdiagnoses and ineffective treatments
83
What is the trend in male and female life expectancies worldwide?
Female life expectancy is consistently higher than male life expectancy
84
Fill in the blank: The infant mortality rate among the poor can approximate that of _______.
[developing countries]
85
What are some social factors that negatively impact health?
* Low social capital
* High urban degradation
* Interpersonal violence
* Low social trust
86
What is the difference in morbidity rates between men and women?
Women have higher morbidity rates, suffering from more illnesses and disabilities than men
87
What are the common health issues faced by American Indians?
* Higher rates of death from diabetes, alcohol and drug use, and infant mortality
* Lower mortality rates from cancer and heart disease
88
What is the relationship between obesity and healthcare misdiagnoses?
Doctors may assume that being overweight or obese is the only cause of a patient's health problems, leading to misdiagnoses and ineffective treatments.
## Footnote
This damages trust in the doctor-patient relationship.
89
How does obesity affect patient behavior in healthcare?
Patients who are overweight or obese are more likely to switch doctors repeatedly and experience a lack of continuity of care.
## Footnote
This can lead to inadequate preventative care and screenings.
90
In terms of healthcare access, how do women compare to men?
Women tend to fare better in accessing healthcare, utilizing more services and having better health profiles overall.
## Footnote
This is largely due to higher insurance rates and morbidity among women.
91
What is 'second sickness'?
An exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice.
## Footnote
Higher-income groups tend to have better health outcomes than lower-income groups.
92
What factors contribute to healthcare disparities between classes?
Poverty, social capital, access to resources, and discrimination based on race, gender, and age.
## Footnote
These disparities often result in lower quality care for low-income and underrepresented groups.
93
Define social stratification.
A hierarchical arrangement of individuals based on socioeconomic status (SES).
## Footnote
SES is influenced by both ascribed and achieved status.
94
What are ascribed and achieved status?
Ascribed status is involuntary and based on identifiable characteristics, while achieved status is acquired through individual efforts.
## Footnote
Examples include age, gender, and skin color for ascribed status.
95
List the three main social classes.
* Upper class
* Middle class
* Lower class
## Footnote
These classes share similar lifestyles, job opportunities, attitudes, and behaviors.
96
What is the definition of anomie?
A state of normlessness that erodes social solidarity.
## Footnote
Anomic conditions can lead to excessive individualism and social inequality.
97
What is social capital?
The investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards.
## Footnote
Social networks are a powerful form of social capital.
98
What is meritocracy?
A society in which advancement is based on intellectual talent and achievement.
## Footnote
This allows for social mobility based on merit.
99
What is the poverty line?
The minimum income requirements for families to acquire basic necessities of life.
## Footnote
This is determined by the government in the United States.
100
Define absolute poverty.
When people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities.
## Footnote
This includes shelter, food, clothing, and water.
101
Define relative poverty.
When one is poor in comparison to a larger population.
## Footnote
This term highlights disparities in wealth within a community.
102
What is social exclusion?
A sense of powerlessness when individuals feel alienated from society.
## Footnote
This can impact mental health and access to resources.
103
What is spatial inequality?
A form of social stratification across territories and their populations.
## Footnote
It can occur along residential, environmental, and global lines.
104
How do urban areas compare to rural areas in terms of economic opportunities?
Urban areas tend to have more diverse economic opportunities and greater social mobility than rural areas.
## Footnote
Rural areas often have limited resources and employment options.
105
What is environmental injustice?
An uneven distribution of environmental hazards in communities.
## Footnote
Lower-income neighborhoods may lack power to prevent such hazards.
106
Define incidence in epidemiology.
The number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time.
## Footnote
For example, new cases per 1000 at-risk people per year.
107
Define prevalence in epidemiology.
The number of cases of a disease per population in a given period of time.
## Footnote
For example, cases per 1000 people per year.
108
What does morbidity refer to?
The burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease.
## Footnote
This can indicate the severity of health conditions.
109
What does mortality refer to?
Deaths caused by a given disease.
## Footnote
This metric helps assess the impact of a disease on a population.
110
How does socioeconomic status affect health?
Those with greater income typically have access to better quality healthcare.
## Footnote
This is particularly significant in the U.S. healthcare system.
111
What are some health outcomes associated with poverty?
* Decreased life expectancy
* Higher rates of life-shortening diseases
* Higher rates of suicide and homicide
* Higher infant mortality rates
## Footnote
These outcomes highlight the negative impact of poverty on health.
112
How do health profiles differ among racial and ethnic groups?
African Americans have the worst health profiles, while Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders have the best.
## Footnote
White Americans, American Indians, and Hispanic Americans fall in between.
113
What barriers do LGBTQ individuals face in healthcare?
Discrimination, homophobia, and transphobia can limit access to care.
## Footnote
These biases can create significant challenges in obtaining necessary services.
114
What are some efforts to improve healthcare access for underserved populations?
* Affordable Care Act (ACA)
* Medicare and Medicaid programs
## Footnote
These initiatives aim to reduce disparities in healthcare access.
115
What is relative poverty?
Relative poverty describes being poorer than those in the surrounding population.
## Footnote
Members of the upper class can live in relative poverty compared to others in their neighborhood.
116
Does relative poverty correlate with upward or downward social mobility?
No, relative poverty is not directly associated with upward or downward social mobility.
## Footnote
Individuals living in relative poverty could exhibit mobility in either direction or no social mobility at all.
117
Which population tends to have larger numbers in suburbs compared to urban centers?
Upper- and middle-class populations tend to have larger numbers in suburbs than urban centers.
## Footnote
This is due to increased mobility in upper- and middle-class populations.
118
What does morbidity refer to?
Morbidity refers to the burden of illness, or the severity or degree of illness.
## Footnote
Mortality refers to deaths caused by a given illness.
119
What is chronicity?
Chronicity refers to the duration of a disease, not its severity or significance for the patient.
120
How do Asian Americans' health profiles compare to White Americans'?
Asian Americans tend to have better overall health profiles compared to White Americans.
## Footnote
African Americans tend to have worse profiles, while Hispanic Americans and American Indians have mixed health profiles.
121
Who does Medicare cover?
Medicare covers patients over the age of 65, those with end-stage renal disease, and those with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
122
What is the relationship between homicide rates and morbidity?
High homicide rates cause increases in mortality, not morbidity.
123
If the threshold for hypertension were lowered, what would happen?
More individuals would fit the criteria for the disease, increasing prevalence.
## Footnote
If the population stays the same overall, an increased prevalence of the disease will occur.
124
Do males or females visit primary care doctors more frequently?
Females visit primary care doctors more frequently than males.
