Module 2 Flashcards
(182 cards)
1
Q
patterns of behaviour or personality traits that are TYPICAL or that conform to some standard of proper and ACCEPTABLE ways of behaving and being…
A
Normality
2
Q
Health vs Illness
A
HEALTH - State of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
ILLNESS - Reverse of health
3
Q
IMPORTANCE of DIFFERENTIATING HEALTH from ILLNESS
A
- Important step in the development of psychiatric nomenclature
- Important in defining the domain of psychiatry
- Important in understanding the epistemology of psychiatric diagnosis
4
Q
According to DSM IV-TR:
- A behavioral/ psychological syndrome associated with: Distress
Disability (impairment in functioning)
- Must NOT be an expected and culturally sanctioned response to a particular event (e.g. loss of a loved one)
A
Mental Disorder
5
Q
Successful performance of mental functions (i.e. thought, mood, behaviour) that results in:
- Productive activities
- Fulfilling relationships with others
- Ability to adopt to changes
- Cope with adversities
A
Mental Health
6
Q
PERSEPECTIVES of HEALTH and ILLNESS
A
- Absence-of-pathology perspective
- Utopia perspective
- Statistical perspective
- Systems perspective
- Pragmatic perspective
7
Q
Health
- Absence of symptoms, physical signs and/or laboratory abnormalities
- Free of undue pain, discomfort, disability, distress, disadvantage and other features of disorder
Biological perspective emphasizes this model
A
ABSENCE-of-PATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE
8
Q
ABSENCE-of-PATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE: Goal of treatment
A
- To free the person from the presence of the grossly observable symptoms
- To help person attain reasonable functioning
9
Q
LIMITATIONS of the ABSENCE-of-PATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE
A
- A biological etiology or pathology may not always be present or determinable in all cases of mental disorders.
- The standard or optimal pattern of neurochemical structure and function is ambiguous and arbitrary.
- Many people who are ill do not complain or even suffer, because they experience no symptoms, they accept their incapacity, or they find some benefit from it.
10
Q
Health - State of ideal functioning
Emphasized in humanistic and psychoanalytic models of treatment
A
UTOPIA PERSPECTIVE
11
Q
UTOPIA PERSPECTIVE: Goal of treatment
A
- To help person actualize or reach his/her full potential
- To help person optimize functioning in some ideal manner
12
Q
LIMITATION of the UTOPIA PERSPECTIVE
A
- Obtained rarely and by a few persons
- Sigmund Freud: mental health is an “ideal fiction”
13
Q
Health - Average level of functioning
Emphasized in
- Psychometric models of psychopathology in psychology
- Medical diagnosis and classifications such as hypertension
A
STATISTICAL PERSPECTIVE
14
Q
LIMITATION of the STATISTICAL PERSPECTIVE
A
- Average is not the same as healthy.
- E.g., in the general population, the mean weight or eyesight is actually unhealthy
15
Q
Health - A condition that is not deemed sufficiently troublesome to seek treatment for is not pathological
The evaluation that a condition is a disorder is relative to the society and the citizens within that society
A
PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVE
16
Q
LIMITATION of the PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVE
A
Defining mental disorders as those conditions treated by mental health professionals may be self-serving & relative to the complaints and economics of the local patients and interests of the local clinicians.
17
Q
Health - Functional interplay of interacting systems that operate and fluctuate in a relative adaptivity over time
Emphasizes multiple processes and levels of adaptation that need to be studied longitudinally
A
SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
18
Q
SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE: Levels of adaptation
A
- Biological
- Cognitive
- Affective
- Interpersonal
- Occupational
- Familial
19
Q
OTHER CAVEATS in DEFINING MENTAL HEALTH
A
What is healthy may depend on geography, culture and historical moment.
- Punctuality is a virtue in some countries but not in others.
- Gen. George Patton’s competitive temperament was a psychological liability in time of peace but a virtue in two world wars.
20
Q
OTHER CAVEATS in DEFINING MENTAL HEALTH 2
A
One must make clear whether one is discussing trait or state.
Who is physically healthier?
- An Olympic miler disabled by a simple but temporary ankle fracture?
- A type 1 diabetic with a temporary normal blood sugar level?
21
Q
OTHER CAVEATS in DEFINING MENTAL HEALTH 3
A
One must appreciate the danger of “contamination by values”.
- What is mental health good for?
For self or the society? For fitting in or for creativity? For happiness or survival? - Who should be the judge?
22
Q
- Polarized, elongated cells capable of instantaneously, intracellular communication
- Transmission of information
A
Neurons
23
Q
Anatomy of Neuron
A
Dendrites: take input information into neuron
Cell body: cellular metabolism, incoming signal communicated
Axon: carries information away from cell bodies towards output terminals
24
Q
3 Types of Glial Cells
A
- Astrocytes
- Oligondendrocytes-CNS/ Schwann Cells-PNS
- Microglia
25
- Most numerous
- Nutrition of cells
- Deactivation of neurotransmitters
- Integration of blood cell barrier
Astrocytes
26
Wrap their processes around axons resulting in-myelin sheaths that facilitate conduction
Oligondendrocytes-CNS/ Schwann Cells-PNS
27
- Derived from macrophages
| - Removing cell debris
Microglia
28
processes external stimuli into neuronal impulses and create an internal representation of the external world
Sensory systems
29
enable people to manipulate the environment and to influence others’ behavior through communication
Motor systems
30
where the sensory inputs, representing the external world, is integrated with internal drives and emotional stimuli and in turn drive the actions of the motor units
Associated units
31
The Basic Unit Of Behavior is THE REFLEX ARC
- RECEPTOR
- SENSORY/AFFERENT NEURON
- SYNAPSE IN THE CNS
- MOTOR/EFFERENT NEURON
- EFFECTOR
32
- transforms external stimuli into neural impulses and then filter out irrelevant formation to create an internal image of the environment which serve as the basis for reasoned thought.
- Alteration of conscious perception through hypnosis
Sensory Systems
33
Sensory Systems: Sensory inputs
- Auditory
- Gustatory
- Visual
- Olfactory
- Tactile
34
- state of heightened suggestibility - gross distortions of perception of any sensory modality
Hypnosis
35
Visual Association Areas
Parietal=Place!
“Where object is!”
Temporal=Type
“What object is!”
L ITC=response to facial features
R ITC=response to complex shapes
36
- inability to recognize faces
Prosopagnosia
37
inability to identify and draw items w/ preservation of other sensory modalities
Apperceptive Visual Agnosia
38
Inability to name or use objects despite ability to draw them
Associative Visual Agnosia
39
Inability to recognize color despite being able to match it
Color Agnosia
40
Inability to name color despite being able to match it
Color anomia
41
Complete inability to perceive color
Central achromastopsia (color blindness)
42
- Failure to acknowledge blindness
| - Interruption of fibers involved in self assessment Bilateral occipital lesions
Anton’s syndrome
43
- Dyscalcula
- Dysgraphia
- Finger agnosia
- Right and left disorientation
- Problem w/ dominant parietal lobe
Gertsman Syndrome
44
severe difficulty in making arithmetical calculations
Dyscalculia
45
inability to write coherently
Dsygraphia
46
- Optic ataxia
- Occulumotor apraxia
- Simultanognosia
Balint’s Syndrome Triad
47
- inability to direct optically guided movement
| - An inability to guide the hand toward an object using visual information
Optic Ataxia
48
Inability to direct gaze rapidly
Occulomotor apraxia
49
inabilty to integrate visual scene to perceive it as whole
Simultanagnosia
50
(auditory system)
intact hearing for voices, inability to recognized
Word deafness: (word, verbal, auditory agnosia)
51
(auditory system)
inability to recognize non verbal sounds (e.g. cat’ meow) intact hearing and speech recognition
Auditory sound agnosia
52
Motor systems
- Brainstem
- Corticospinal tract
- Basal ganglia
- Cerebellum
- Motor cortex
- Autonomic cortex-sympathetic and paraympathetic
53
primitive systems produce gross coordinated movements of the entire body
Brainstem
54
- controls fine movements and dominates the brainstem
- Motor strip - posterior frontal lobe
- planned movements
Corticospinal tract
55
- subcorticate matter that medicate postural tone
| - Four distinct ganglia: striatum, pallidum, substantia nigra, subthalamic nuclei
Basal ganglia
56
- harbor components of both motor and associated systems
- plays an important role in the modulation of motor acts
- decreased activate is related with OCD behavior
- when functioning properly, acts as the gate keeper to allow the motor system to perform only those acts which are goal directed.
Corpus striatum - caudate and putamen
57
Overactivity of the striatum - due to lack of dopaminergic inhibition - results in __- an inability to initiate movements
bradykinesia
58
receives inputs from the corpus striatum and project fibers into the thalamus
Globus pallidus
59
- melanin pigment
| - degenerates into Parkinson’s disease
Substantia nigra
60
yields ballistic movements, sudden limb jerks - projectile movements
Subthalamic nucleus
61
(complex fine movement!)
| - Inability to use contralateral hand in presence of preserved strength
Limb Kinetic Apraxia
62
(motor!)
| - Inability to perform isolated motor act or command
Ideomotor apraxia
63
(sequence!)
- Individual components of a sequence of skilled acts can be performed in isolation but the entire series cannot be executed
Ideational apraxia
64
capable of initiating and maintaining the full range of useful movements
Nuclei of the basal ganglia
65
- Basic organization of the brain
Three main processing blocks
1. Brainstem and the thalamic reticular activating system
2. Posterior cortex - integrates perception and generates language
3. Frontal cortex - highest level - generates programs and executes plans
Association Cortex
66
- key feature of higher cortical processing
- primary sensory cortices for touch, vision, hearing, smell and taste are represented bilaterally
- e.g. Recognition of familiar faces; localization of language
Hemispheric lateralization of function
67
responsible for generating and modifying memories and for assigning emotional weight to sensory and recalled experience
Limbic system
68
- one of the nucleus of the limbic system that receives fibers from all sensory areas
- serve as a gate for the assignment of emotional significance to memories
Amygdala
69
- Voluntary movement
- Language production
- Motor prosody
- Motivation
- Executive functions
Frontal lobe
70
- Audition
- Language comprehension
- Sensory prosody
- Memory
- Emotion
Temporal lobes
71
- Tactile sensation
- Visuospatial function
- Reading
- Calculation
Parietal lobes
72
- Vision
| - Visual perception
Occipital lobes
73
- Slowed thinking, poor judgment, decreased curiosity, social withdrawal, irritability
- Apathy to sudden impulsive disinhibition
- May be largely unnoticed, becoming apparent only under unstructured, stressful, real-life situations
- Trauma, infarcts, tumors, lobotomy, multiple sclerosis, Pick’s disease
Frontal Lobe Syndrome
74
Localization of specific brain functions
```
Arousal
Attention
Memory
Language
Emotion
```
75
- establishment and maintenance of awake sate
- Brain regions: brainstem, ARAS, cortex
- within the brainstem - ARAS - sets the level of consciousness
- absence of which leads to stupor and coma
Arousal
76
- maintained by an intact right frontal lobe
- the skill of maintaining a coherent line of thought is distributed throughout the cortex
- medical conditions that affect the cortex: loss of skill, confusion and delirium
Attention
77
Major causes of acute confusion
- Infectious
- Metabolic: Hypoxia, Hypoglycemia, Uremia, Hepatic disease
- Toxic: drugs
- Vascular: stroke; SAH
- Neoplastic
- Traumatic: brain injury
78
- functions over a period of seconds
| - implicit in the concept of attention and ability o follow train of thought
Immediate memory
79
- applies on the scale of minutes to days
| - working memory - ability to store information and relate to cognitive information
Recent memory
80
- memory encompasses months to years
Remote memory
81
Basic structures critical to the formation of the memory:
1. Medial temporal lobe
- house the Hippocampus
- Amygdala - rates the emotional importance of an experience and to activate the level of hippocampal activity
2. Diencephalic nuclei
3. Basal forebrain
4. Hippocampus
82
- significant site for the formation and storage of immediate and recent memories
left - efficient for forming verbal memories
right - non-verbal memories
Hippocampus
83
memorized motor acts
activation of the median temporal lobe
84
with practice; for highly skilled acts
left parietal cortex
85
Causes of amnesia:
alcoholism, seizures, migraine, drugs, vitamin deficiencies, trauma, strokes, tumors, infections and degenerative diseases
86
- for formation of memory
dorsal medial nucleus of the thalamus
mamillary bodies
Diencephalon
87
- most common clinical disorder of memory
- char. by degeneration of neurons and their replacement by senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles
- impaired language comprehension and visuospatial organization - parietal lobe
Alzheimer’s disease
88
- due to thiamine deficiency in chronic alcoholics
| - char. by severe inability to form new memories and inability to recall
Korsakoff’s syndrome
89
- Clearly demonstrates hemispheric localization of function
| - The dominant hemisphere for language directs the dominant hand
Language
90
Language comprehension is processed at three levels.
1. Phonological processing - individual sounds
2. Lexical processing matches the phonological input with recognized words
3. Semantic processing - connects the words to their meaning
91
- Derives from basic drives: feeding, sex, pleasure, pain, fear and aggression
- Neuroanatomical basis: limbic system
- other distinct human emotions: affection, pride, guilt, pity, envy, resentment - are learned and represented in the cortex
Emotion
92
Hemispheric dichotomy of emotional representation
Left hemisphere - houses the analytical mind
Right hemisphere appears dominant for affect, socialization and body image
Left prefrontal cortex - appears to lift mood
Right prefrontal cortex - causes depression
93
- Reading (parietal)
- Calculation (parietal)
- Language comprehension (temporal)
- Adds internal details, embellishment, shape, complexities
- Right and left disorientation
- Verbal task (parietal)
- Lifts mood (PFC)
- Response to facial features (Inferior temporal Lobe)
- Analytical Mind
- Limb Apraxia, Aphasia
Left Hemisphere
94
- Maintaining attention (frontal)
- Visuospatial (parietal)
- Overall contour
- Perspective
- Right and left orientation
- Performance Task
- Depression
- Uncontrollable crying
- Affect
- Somatization
- Body image
- pRosody
Right hemisphere
95
houses the emotional association areas which directs the hippocampus to express the motor and endocrine components of the emotional state
Limbic system
96
- hippocampus, the fornix, the mamillary bodies, the anterior nucleus of the thalamus and the cingulate gyrus
Limbic system: Papez circuit (1937)
97
To __ is to behave in a way that one’s attitudes and actions are well matched to the demands and constraints of the external environment and where one’s sense of internal discomfort or distress is minimized.
FUNCTION ADAPTIVELY
98
The ability to adapt depends on:
- The individual’s behavior repertoire
| - The external environment
99
True or False
An individual’s personality style has a great influence on his/her behavior and adaptive functioning.
True
100
Personality is shaped from a blend of:
- Inborn temperament
- Genetic strengths and vulnerabilities
- Impact of positive and negative life experiences
101
- Individual behavioral styles - activity levels, biological rhythmicity, emotional style and sociability, and response to stimulus or change
- affects the degree to which different infants are susceptible to distress as well as their variations in attachment style
Temperament
102
Temperament characteristics
- “Difficult” children
- “Easy” children
- “Slow-to-warm-up” children
103
– had irregular sleeping patterns, tended to withdraw from new situations, were not adaptable, and had intense and negative reaction
“Difficult” children
104
– were biologically regular, adaptive, and in good moods; they had positive reactions to situations and reactions were mild in intensity
“Easy” children
105
– had initial withdrawal responses, slow adaptation, and mild reactions.
“Slow-to-warm-up” children
106
- play a role in development, especially when they interact with the environment.
Link between early loss of a parent and vulnerability to depression in the face of later stressful life events
In general, genetic factors account for 30% - 60% of the variance in adult personality traits
Genetic factors
107
- have an impact on the individual and affect one’s behavior for better or worse
- need to consider their impact and meaning: if particular experiences are the result of fate in contrast to whether they are partially brought about by the person’s own actions
Life experiences
108
Broad Classes of Coping Mechanism
1. Consciously Seeking social support
2. Conscious Cognitive strategies
3. Adaptive involuntary mechanisms-defense mechanisms
109
- Reduces conflict
- Reduces cognitive dissonance
- If not distorted and denied can result in anxiety or depression
- Can restore psychological homeostasis by ignoring or deflecting sudden increases in the lodestar impulse-affect and emotion
Involuntary Mechanisms
110
Can provide a mental time out to adjust to sudden changes in reality and self image w/c cannot immediately integrated
Can mitigate sudden unresolvable conflict with important people living or dead
E.g. Death, unexpected proposal of marriage
Involuntary Mechanisms
111
- Maximize gratification and allow awareness of feelings and ideas and their consequences
- Promote an optimum balance between conflicting motives
- Altruism
- Anticipation
- Humor
- Sublimation
- Suppression
MATURE DEFENSES
112
- Involves an individual giving pleasure to others what the individual would have liked to receive
- E.g. Alcohol abuser becomes leader of AA
Altruism
113
- Transforming unacceptable needs into acceptable ambitions and actions; Allows instincts to be channeled, not blocked or diverted
Sublimation
114
(mature defenses)
Sexual drives can be poured into sports or music
Sublimation
115
(mature defenses)
Anger and resentment of the advantages of others can be funeled into an obsession to excel in a lucrative career
Sublimation
116
- Defense that modulates emotional conflict or internal or external stressors through stoiticism
- Minimizes postpones but does not ignores gratification
Suppression
117
(mature defenses)
- You forget to do things or try to think of other things so you can “settle down” and function better
- Counting to 10 before acting in anger
Suppression
118
Realistically anticipating or planning for future inner discomfort
Anticipation
119
(mature defenses)
- An employee who is on the verge of termination plans out his next course of action.
- A student who anticipates failure in school begins to inform his parents about this.
Anticipation
120
- more common approach in clinical psychiatry
- a person is described as meeting or not meeting the criteria for various diagnostic categories
- unique characteristics of one’s personality style
- the categories are not overlapping
DSM IV: Categorical system
121
- a person is evaluated in terms of a blend of traits or factors one possesses, measured on a continuum
- Everyone’s personality can be maladaptive or adaptive (quantity of a given trait rather than quality makes it a problem)
- Important determinants of a person’s adaptive capacity: flexibility and variability
Dimensional system:
122
Oldham and Morris’ Personality Style-Personality Disorder Continuum 1
Vigilant: Paranoid
Solitary: Schizoid
Idiosyncratic: Schizotypal
Adventurous: Antisocial
123
Oldham and Morris’ Personality Style-Personality Disorder Continuum 2
```
Mercurial: Borderline
Dramatic: Histrionic
Self-confident: Narcissistic
Sensitive: Avoidant
Devoted: Dependent
Conscientious: Obsessive-compulsive
```
124
– encompass anxiety, hostility, depression, impulsiveness
Neuroticism
125
– include warmth, assertiveness, excitement seeking, positive emotions
Extraversion
126
- fantasy, feelings, actions, ideas
Openness
127
- trust, altruism, compliance, modesty
Agreeableness
128
- competence, order, dutifulness, self-discipline
Conscientiousness
129
Each person’s unique personality style is reflected in the various domains in which a person functions.
DOMAINS OF FUNCTIONING
130
- provides a scale to rate a person’s overall level of adaptation(100-point scale)
1. Social and Interpersonal functioning
2. Occupational functioning
3. Degree of symptoms
GAF - Global Assessment of Functioning
131
Social and Interpersonal Functioning
- A person’s perception of relationships with others
- Quality and depth of bonds
- Degree to which a person feels reticent about being open within each relationship
- Degree to which others are depended on for help; i.e. advice and financial support
- Freedom from friction and arguments, reciprocity and supportiveness– inherent assumption in its assessment
132
- Provides a quantitative way to investigate interpersonal functioning (e.g. person’s relationship with family of origin, spouse or partner, children, work colleagues, friends and acquaintances
- Provides a way to assess whether someone initiates contact with others (i.e. whether the individual feels an urge to be defiant or rebellious; overly concerned, guilty, or resentful within each relationship)
Social Adjustment Scale
133
Requires: Capacity for interpersonal functioning ADAPTIVE occupational functioning: consist of being engaged and feeling satisfied about and competent at work
```
Requires examining ways of….
Completing tasks
Taking and giving orders
Delegating responsibility
Cooperating with others
Ability to balance demands
Obeying regulations
Decision-making
```
Occupational Functioning
134
Focuses on externally observable behaviors
- Number of days lost in a month
- Degree of impairment of performance at work
- Internal states: feelings inadequate, angry, and distressed at work (and by work) and/ or its positive correlates (are these reflected in work performance, relationships with superiors and subordinates?)
Social Adjustment Scale
135
- The capacity to enjoy leisure depends on:
External demands and responsibilities
Financial and other resources
- Gusto with which leisure activities are pursued
- Types of activities chosen
Leisure
136
Assesses how well developed and specific a patient’s interests are:
- Frequency of pursuit (quantify aspects of leisure)
- Leisure-time adaptation – the experience of loneliness and boredom during free-time as well as the person’s ability to compensate for these painful states
Social Adjustment Scale
137
Tools In Assessment Of Domains Of Functioning
1. Weissman’s Social Adjustment Scale
2. Benjamin’s Structural Analysis of Social Behavior
3. “Psychiatric Clinical Interview”
- Gives information on: personality style; level of adaptive functioning; usual patterns of behavior
- MSE assesses appearance, attitude, motor behaviors provides clues to: Personality; Capacity for interpersonal interactions; Potentially problematic behavior patterns
138
Assessing Behavior and Adaptive Functioning in the Clinical Interview
1. Appearance – overall clinical impression reflected by grooming, clothing, poise and posture
Problems in appearance can suggest the possibility of other functional impairments as well.
2. Attitude and Cooperation- To detect the patient’s attitude and willingness to cooperate in the examination
- Friendly, hostile, seductive, apathetic, defensive
- Suggests general level of interpersonal functioning
- Is affected by psychiatric illness
139
- Overall level of activity
- Impulsivity
- Restlessness, pacing, hand wringing or other forms of agitation
- Tics
- Provides clues to person’s internal state
Mania – increased motor behavior
Depress/ intoxicated – psychomotor slowing
- Clues to Personality
Motor Behavior
140
sudden, rapid involuntary stereotyped movements (e.g. facial grimaces, blinking, neck jerking, shrugging, coughing, barking, etc
Tics
141
Problem Patterns of Behavior
Cuts across diagnostic groups
Fruitful way of characterizing maladaptive functioning
- Impulsive behavior
- Compulsive behavior
- Avoidant behavior
142
Are actions that arise without much delay between the formation of an idea or desire and its gratification in action
```
self-mutilation
suicide
substance abuse
pathological gambling
banging and purging
hair pulling
paraphilias
kleptomania
```
Impulsive Behavior
143
Hallmarks:
- Tension-action-relief
- Frankly pleasurable at the moment of action even if the person is extremely remorseful afterward
- Experience relative imperviousness to the consequences of the actions and tend to underestimate their chances of being caught
Impulsive Behavior
144
Hallmarks:
- Act may increase the odds of apprehension and punishment (e.g. poor planning and execution)
- Behavior that it seemed out of control (e.g. binging, suicide, self mutilation, substance abuse, gambling, purging, kleptomania, pyromania, paraphilias)
Impulsive Behavior
145
– time-consuming; senseless; experience of distress; done to relieve distress/ anxiety
- Versus carefulness or attention to detail
- hand washing and checking
- sexual compulsions
- food restriction
Compulsive behavior
146
- Agoraphobia
- Simple phobias
- Social phobia
- arise from history of being fearful from a given situation; has a tendency to be self-reinforcing
Avoidant behavior
147
True or False
In evaluating the adaptiveness of a person’s behavior, an understanding of the strengths & weaknesses of various character styles and the constraints and demands of the external environment is essential.
True
148
True or False
Behavior is the final common pathway for the expression of genetics, temperament, personality traits and psychiatric symptoms
True
149
- The study of the chemical interneuronal communication
- Basic electrophysiology
- Translation of the AP into chemical neurotransmission
Neurophysiology and Neurochemistry
150
- Ion channels open in response to binding of ligands to receptors
- Use of neurotransmitters
ligand-gated ion channels
151
- in response to changes in membrane potential
| - Use of electricity
Voltage-gated ion channels
152
- instantaneous pulses of membrane depolarization
| - myelin sheath - increase the rate of AP along the axon
Action potential
153
- AP triggers the release of chemical neurotransmitters, which enter the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors
Neuronal cell bodies - gray matter
Myelinated axon tracts - white matter
Synaptic cleft
154
making a membrane more positive
Polarization
155
the inside of the membrane is even more negatively charged than it was at baseline
- 70-80mV: resting state
- 55mV= spike threshold
Afterhyperpolarization
156
(Voltage-Gated ion channels)
- open cation channels that depolarize the membrane and increase the likelihood of the generation of an action potential.
- These ligands are said to elicit excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs).
Excitatory neurotransmitters
157
(Voltage-Gated ion channels)
open chloride channels that hyperpolarize the membrane and decrease the likelihood of the generation of an action potential.
These ligands are said to elicit inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs).
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
158
Post Synaptic Components
- Receptors
- Secondary messengers
- Neurotransmitters
159
2 Major Types of Neurotransmitter Receptors
1. seven-transmembrane-domain receptors - which require G proteins,
2. ligand-gated ion channels - w/c the channel is an integral part of the complex that binds the ligand
160
1st messengers:
- The neurotransmitters
- bring a signal to a neuron.
- For the neuron to act on the signal, the 1st-messenger signal must be translated into an intraneuronal signal via formation of __
second-messenger molecules
161
Chemical signals that flow between neurons
Neurotransmitters
162
- is the process involving the release of a neurotransmitters by one neuron and the binding of the neurotransmitter molecule to a receptor on another neuron
anti- psychotics - block D2
anti-depressants - increase the amount of serotonin or norepinephrine
Chemical neurotransmission
163
Criteria for a Neurotransmitter
1. The molecule is synthesized in the neuron.
2. The molecule is present in the presynaptic neuron and is released on depolarization in physiologically significant amounts.
3. When administered exogenously as a drug, the exogenous molecule mimics the effects of the endogenous neurotransmitter.
4. A mechanism in the neurons or the synaptic cleft acts to remove or deactivate the neurotransmitter
164
Types of Neurotransmitters
1. Biogenic amines (least!) - Dopamine; Norepinephrine; Epinephrine; Serotonin; Acetylcholine; Histamine
2. Amino acids (most!) - GABA; Glutamate
3. Peptides (middle) - Oxytocin; Cortisol releasing factor(CRF); ACTH; Prolactin; Substance P; Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
165
Clarification of Terms
Catecholamines:Dopamine; Epinephrine; Norepinephrine
Monoamines: Dopamine; Norepinephrine; Serotonin
Biogenic amines: Dopamine; Norepinephrine; Epinephrine; Serotonin; Acetylcholine; Histamine
166
- Increased in Schizophrenia
- Increased by antidepressants
- Decreased in Parkinson’s disease
Dopamine
167
- mood D/O
- Anxiety
- panic states
Norepinephrine and Epinephrine
168
- Increased in Schizophrenia and Mania
- Decreased in Depression
- Increased by Antidepressant
Serotonin
169
All biogenic amines NT are synthesized in the
axon terminal
170
- amino acid precursor of serotonin
Tryptophan
171
- amino acid precursor of the catecholamines: D, NE, E
Tyrosine
172
Dopamine Pathway
Nigrostriatal tract
Mesolimbic-mesocortical tract
Tuberoinfundibular tract
173
- cell bodies in the substantia nigra—>corpus striatum
- D2 receptors in the caudate nucleus suppress the activity of the caudate nucleus
- caudate nucleus regulates motor acts by gating which intended acts are carried out
nigrostriatal tract
174
- cell bodies in the ventral tegmental area which is adjacent to the SN, CC, and LS
- mediate effects of anti-psychotic drugs
Mesolimbic-Mesocortical tract
175
- arcuate nucleus and the periventircular area of the hypothalamus and project to the infundibulum and the anterior pituitary
- D acts as a release -inhibiting factor of prolactin in the anterior pituitary
Tuberoinfundibular tract
176
- Noradrenergic and the adrenergic systemLife cycle
- CNS noradrenergic tracts
project into the locus ceruleus in the pons
axons project through the medial forebrain bundle in the CC, LS, thalamus and hypothalamus
Norepinephrine and Epinephrine
177
- Life cycle: axon terminal
tryptophan - is the rate-limiting function
dietary variations:
- low: irritability, hunger
high: sleep, relieve anxiety, increase a sense of well-being
- Major site: upper pons and midbrain, median and dorsal raphe nuclei, the LC and postrema
Serotonin
178
- Contain the building blocks of protein
- Brain: glutamate and aspartate
Two major AA:
GABA- Gamma-aminobutyric acid - inhibitory amino acid (IAA); monocarboxylic amino acid
Glutamate -excitatory amino acid (EAA); dicarboxylic amino acid
- several anti-convulsants act through the GABAergic mechanisms
Amino Acid
179
- synthesized from glucose and glutamine in the presynaptic neuron terminals and stored in the synaptic vesicles
- primary NT in cerebellar granule cells, the striatum, the cells of the hippocampus
- its release is stimulated by nicotine
Glutamate
180
- a glutamate receptor plays an essential role in learning and memory as well in psychopathology
N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor
181
- found most exclusively in the CNS and does not cross the BBB
- midbrain and diencephalon, less in the cerebral hemispheres, the pons, and the medulla
- synthesized from glutamate by the rate limiting enzyme glutamic acid carboxylase (GAD) which requires pyridoxine (Vit. B6) as cofactor
- is the primary NT in intrinsic neurons that function as local mediators for the inhibitory feedback loops
GABA
182
- Refers to the chemical bond between the carboxylic acid group and the amino group of adjacent amino acids in a protein
- Differ from other NT because they are manufactured in the cell body
- May serve as neuromodulary role at some synapses
Peptides
