NA Black Power

Question 1

Positive View

Answer 1

• The Black Power movement was what inspired and led to the Red Power movement as the 1960s transitioned into the 1970s, a prolific time for the rights of Indians

Question 2

Negative View

Answer 2

• The Black Power movement had little to do with the Red Power movement, which was caused by activism building up since WW2 and a response to wider societal changes, actually insulting to NA that they “piggy-backed” onto the BP movement

Question 3

Motivations other than Black Power for Red Power

Answer 3

• WW2 and Termination
• Kennedy’s “New Frontier” or Johnson’s “Great Society”, both of which encouraged minorities to seize their rights
• Awful conditions in urban ghettos experienced by many NAs
• Wider societal changed

Question 4

Which groups had been set up prior to Black Power

Answer 4

• National Congress of American Indians (1944)

- National Indian Youth Council (1961)

Question 5

Role of NCAI

Answer 5

• National Congress of American Indians (1944)
• Introduced by President Roosevelt
• Aimed to further integrate Native Americans into American society
• The 50 tribes that were part of this congress in 1944 could elect a leader to represent them at a national convention
• Failed to create a mass movement
• was disproportionately represented by ⅔ educated and ⅓ from the reservations

Question 6

Impact of Black Power tactics (+ve)

Answer 6

• Peaceful and lengthy legal methods were abandoned in favour of direct action, a tactic of both Black Power and Red Power -There is the appeal of a mass movement that could push for change from the government
• Young Indians were tired of the NCAI as young blacks were tired of the NAACP and SCLC
• The militant protests by groups such as AIM were markedly similar to those of Black Power groups - clear inspiration

Question 7

Background of AIM

Answer 7

• American Indian Movement (AIM) established in 1968
• Was the most militant Native American group
• Actions of AIM were much more aggressive in the later 1960s and 70s as a result of the more aggressive tactics of the Black power movement
• E.g. The siege of Alcatraz in 1969/ AIM took over the BIA in 1972/ 1971 Occupation of Mount Rushmore/ 1973 Occupation of Wounded Knee
• Made more of a headway than previous groups due to Ford, Nixon and Carter’s sympathy to Native American needs

Question 8

Siege of Alcatraz

Answer 8

• 1969
• 14 Indian men and women occupied the former prison island of Alcatraz. Led by Richard Oakes. They publicly made an offer of $24 for ownership of the land as this was how much that was given to them for the island 300 years prior to 1969. 80 Indians established in the island defended the island until it ended in June 1971. It received huge media coverage and increased sympathy for the NA cause.

Question 9

What took inspiration from the Free Breakfast programme organised by the Black Panther Party

Answer 9

• The development of institutions such as the Intertribal Friendship House in Oakland, California, takes clear inspiration from the Free Breakfast programme organised by the Black Panther Party

Question 10

What was the attitudes of the government in this period

Answer 10

• Two FBI agents shot at Pine Ridge Reservation is 1975 - AIM member found guilty but appeals court blamed fed govt for the fatalities
• President Johnson’s “War on Poverty”
• Increased protests led to a pledge from President Kennedy to develop the human and natural resources of the reservations. BUT: These were not fulfilled by the time of his assassination
• President Nixon formally ends the Termination policy in 1970
• 1972- Education Act
• 1975- Indian Self- Determination and Education Assistance Act- Tribes could negotiate contracts with BIA over education, health, social services.
• Nixon was sympathetic to minorities in general and worked well with NCAI
• The Presidencies of Johnson + Kennedy created a favourable government for NAs and as such would have encouraged NA action, discrediting the view that Black Power inspired Red power

Question 11

Evidence of involvement from Native Americans in this period, inspired by BP

Answer 11

• The unity of the Black Power movement clearly partially motivated the unity between tribes brought by Red Power - BUT: NCAI had been promoting this since 1944
• Unity led to greater success
• 1964- Hundreds of Indians gathered in Washington DC for recognition in President Johnson’s ‘War on Poverty’
• 1968- The song ‘As Long as the Grass shall Grow’ by Peter La Farge was one of a number protesting at the abuse of NA’s by white people.
• 1968- A ‘Fish in’ was staged in Washington after the State Supreme Court failed to uphold their treaty rights to fish

Question 12

Occupation of Mount Rushmore

Answer 12

• 1971- Occupation of Mount Rushmore- Natives set up camp to reassert land ownership of sacred Sioux land in Black Hills of Dakota.
• Evidence of militancy from AIM

Question 13

Takeover of the BIA in Washington by AIM

Answer 13

In 1972, AIM march on Washington in the ‘Trail of broken treaties’, whilst in Washington, Indian protestors occupy the headquarters of the BIA

Question 14

Occupation of Wounded Knee

Answer 14

• 1973- Occupation of Wounded Knee- Violent and armed occupation trying to remove an allegedly corrupt Reservation President. A 71-day stake-out by FBI and federal marshals follows. Eval: 2 leaders arrested, massive media coverage but a negotiated settlement reached.

Question 15

Arguments against the view that Black Power inspired Red Power

Answer 15

• Simplistic view to say that tactics of Red Power mirrored those of Black Power as these developments were already taking place for NAs
• Native Americans became more united following WW2 in their protests and resistance to government policies, particularly in response to the policy of termination- Hence Black Power was not the main driver of the Native American movement
• Termination policy led to NCAI gathering representatives of 183,000 Indians.
• Movement to urban areas highlighted the poverty of NAs compared to middle-class whites and made it easier to organise and complain about working and living conditions.
• The Presidencies of Johnson + Kennedy created a favourable government for NAs and as such would have encouraged NA action
• Militancy was already present with groups such as the National Indian Youth Council (1961) and National Congress of American Indians (1944).

Question 16

Arguments against the view that Black Power’s inspiration of Red Power improved the rights of Native Americans

Answer 16

• Native Americans were already achieving success and this had resulted in the establishment of the Indian Claims Commision (1946)- Aimed to regain lands which had been granted by treaties but subsequently lost. 370 claims filed within first few months- Closed down in 1978.
• 1956- Vocational Training Act- Introduced to provide people work- related training.
• Occupation of Mt Rushmore (1971) did not result in the return of the Black Hills to the Sioux tribe
• Occupation of Wounded Knee (1973) with violence lasting for 71 days until a treaty was made. Two of the leaders were arrested but later acquitted

Question 17

Overall:
Did Black Power inspire red Power?
How far did this progress NA rights?

Answer 17

• The 1960s witnesses a much more assertive protest movement among Native Americans but progress was limited due to the lack of legislation.
• However, the view that Black Power inspired Red Power is simplistic and inaccurate as there is evidence of militant action through the NIYC and NCAI before 1965 as well as the increased activity following WW2 and Termination, hence Black Power acted as an accelerator for militant action but not was a cause
• Arguably inspired the movement to become more militant, but not correct to assert that it fundamentally caused Reed Power

Question 18

Role of NARF

Answer 18

• NARF aimed to reinstate tribal sovereignty, recover land and resource rights, recover right to unrestricted voting and the right to worship freely.
• It pressed legal cases and provided money and lawyers to aid their legal cases.
• Eval: This groups may be an argument against Black Power inspiring Red Power as it worked through the courts and highlighted how NAs favoured a working relationship with the government to recover what they had lost

Question 19

Violence on the Pine Ridge reservation

Answer 19

• 1973 to 1976
• AIM siege the reservation in 1873
• 3 year period of internecine violence
• As many as 75 people known to have been killed
• Known as the “reign of terror”
• Appears to be an internal conflict between the so-called “Guardians of the Oglala Nation” (GOONs) and AIM

Question 20

Supreme Court cases in this period (4)

Answer 20

• 1974 Oneida v. Oneida and Madison Counties, NY- This Supreme Court ruling established the right of the Oneida tribe to sue for the return of their lands and opened the floodgate for land claims from other tribes
• 1974 Morton vs. Mancari- Effectively upholds affirmative action for employing in the BIA
• 1975 US vs. Washington- Known as the Boldt decision- Reserved the tribes of Washington’s right to fish
• 1976 Fisher v. Montana- Right for tribal courts to decide on cases of adoption of NA children