NEW Sci: III Flashcards
(500 cards)
1
Q
How many people don’t have access to clean water?
A
1-2 billion, mostly in developing countries
2
Q
What are the 2 main categories of water pollution?
A
point-source pollution and non-point source pollution
3
Q
What is point-source pollution?
A
pollution released from distinct, confined locations, like a factory
4
Q
What is non-point source pollution?
A
pollution that collects from large areas, like runoff from farming regions
5
Q
Why is it important to differentiate the type of source pollutant?
A
because it can help in controlling pollutant inputs to waterways
6
Q
What are parasites, bacteria, and viruses considered as?
A
pathogens
7
Q
Are large-scale disease outbreaks from water systems in the US common?
A
No, they are rare and don’t occur often
8
Q
Where are disease outbreaks from water systems common?
A
developing parts of the world
9
Q
What are the major water-borne diseases?
A
cholera and hepatitis
10
Q
What oxygen-demanding waste?
A
material with organic matter depletes oxygen when decomposed
11
Q
When does oxygen-demanding waste typically get washed into a body of water?
A
during a rainstorm
12
Q
Food scraps, human waste, and animals waste are all what type of waste?
A
oxygen-demanding waste
13
Q
What are inorganic compounds?
A
chemical compounds that don’t come from plants and animals
14
Q
What are the 2 most important inorganic compounds?
A
nitrogen and phosphorus
15
Q
What are 2 inorganic compounds that are most likely to limit growth in a waterbody?
A
nitrogen and phosphorus
16
Q
What happens if too much nitrogen and phosphorus are present in a waterbody?
A
they can overfeed the body of water, leading to eutrophication
17
Q
What is eutrophication?
A
the excessive growth of algae due to an oversupply of nutrients
18
Q
What happens when the excessive algae, due to eutrophication, die?
A
they decompose, depleting large amounts of oxygen and bringing down fish populations
19
Q
What are the major terrestrial sources of nitrogen?
A
farm runoff, sewage treatment plants, and acid precipitation
20
Q
What are the major terrestrial sources of phosphorus?
A
rocks and minerals, fertilizer runoff, and (in the past) detergents
21
Q
What are the major sources of nitrate and sulfate?
A
acid precipitation
22
Q
What are the major terrestrial sources of chloride?
A
by-products of sewage treatment
23
Q
What are the major terrestrial sources of metals?
A
industrial plants
24
Q
What are some of the most toxic water pollutants that are metals?
A
lead, copper, arsenic, and mercury
25
When did mercury receive a lot of attention as an inorganic water contaminant? (decade)
the early 2000s
26
Is mercury an organic or inorganic compound?
inorganic
27
What does POPs stand for?
Persistant Organic Pollutants
28
What are POPs?
toxic chemicals created by humans for industrial purposes that persist in the environment
29
What is special about POPs?
they are very persistent and can accumulate in organisms
30
What does PCBs stand for?
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
31
What are PCBs?
highly toxic and carcinogenic chemicals
32
What were PCBs used in?
manufacturing plastics and insulating electrical transformers
33
When did PCBs stopped being used?
1979
34
Although POPs are no longer manufactured in the US, why are they still present in the environment?
because of their persistence
35
What are sand, silt, and clay examples of?
sediment
36
What are sediments?
nonchemical pollutants that become mobilized when the soil is disturbed
37
When do sediments become mobilized?
when the soil is disturbed
38
How do sediments harm aquatic ecosystems?
they can clog fish gills, reduce infiltration of sunlight, and reduce productivity
39
What happens to the water temperature when humans alter water flow so that it moves more slowly, receives more sunlight, or enters a shallower waterbody?
it is going to increase
40
What happens when water temperature is increased due to human activity?
thermal pollution
41
Can more or less oxygen be dissolved when water is warmer?
less
42
How do warmer waters affect the respiration rate of the organisms?
it causes them to increase
43
What is a side effect of increased respiration rate?
it can make organisms more susceptible to disease and can affect reproduction
44
What is the main culprit of ocean and shoreline pollution?
curde oil and other petroleum products
45
How does oil react when it hits water?
it spreads across the water for hundreds of miles, and leaves a thick covering that is hard to remove
46
Is it easy to remove oil once it has entered water?
No
47
What are the most common sources of oil spills?
off-shore drilling and oil tankers
48
What was the perhaps the most notorious recent spill?
the Deepwater Horizon spill of 2010
49
Where was the Deepwater Horizon spill?
Gulf of Mexico
50
When was the Deepwater Horizon spill?
2010
51
How many gallons of oil were spilled in the Deepwater Horizon spill?
210 million gallons
52
What are ways to cleanup oil spills?
floating booms to keep it from spreading, skimming oil from the water's surface, and chemicals to break down the oil
53
How do chemical dispersants help clean up oil spills?
they break the oil down into particles small enough to be broken down by sunlight and bacteria
54
The dumping of soil waste in open waters has been reduced since when?
the early 1980s
55
What are the negative effects of beach garbage?
it doesn't look good and can be dangerous to marine organisms and even people
56
Toxic medical waste poses a threat to which people in particular?
children
57
How do plastic holders and plastic bags affect animals?
it can strangle them
58
Plastic debris in landfills or waterbodies can degrade over time into ______________ or ______________.
microplastics, nanoplastics
59
What are microplastics?
plastic particles smaller than 5 mm
60
What are nanoplastics?
plastic particles smaller than .0001 mm
61
What is wastewater?
water from houses and buildings destined for a sewage treatment plant or septic system
62
How is wastewater from toilets?
harmful and must be treated before it can be returned to the environment
63
What wastewater is less harmful to the environment?
wastewater that isn't from toilets, like sinks and showers
64
What is wastewater from sources other than toilets called?
gray water
65
What is gray water often used for?
activities such as watering lawns
66
What metals does human sewage often contain high amounts of?
phosphate, nitrate, and more
67
What is human sewage?
oxygen-demanding material that can contain pathogenic organisms and high levels of phosphate, nitrate, and more
68
What do wastewater treatment facilities replicate?
natural processes
69
Where are traditional sewage plants usually used?
developed countries
70
How many phases are in traditional sewage plants?
2, sometimes 3
71
What are the phases of a traditional sewage plants?
primary treatment, secondary treatment, and sometimes tertiary treatment
72
What happens during primary treatment of sewage plants?
solid material is removed and dried out
73
What percent of solid waste is removed in primary treatment of sewage plants?
40%-50%
74
What is the solid that is removed during primary treatment called?
sludge
75
What does sludge usually contain high amounts of?
metals
76
Sludge contains higher amounts of metals if it comes from where?
a municipality, like an industrial business
77
What happens after the sludge is removed in the sewage treatment process?
secondary treatment occurs
78
What is secondary treatment in sewage plants?
where the breakdown of organic matter, which would occur naturally, is accelerated
79
At the end of secondary treatment, what percent of original pollutants have been removed?
85%-90%
80
What happens after secondary treatment?
the water is disinfected and released into a river or lake, or it goes through tertiary treatment and then this occurs
81
How many years ago were many harbors and waterways badly polluted?
40-50
82
When was the Clean Water Act passed?
1972
83
When was the Safe Drinking Water Act passed?
1986
84
When were the Water Resources Development Acts passed?
1986-1992
85
What have the laws passed on water protection and safety done?
worked to protect surface water
86
What does the Clean Water Act require?
the establishment of Water Quality Standards and a Total Maximum Daily Load
87
What do Water Quality Standards do?
place an upper limit on the concentration of certain pollutants in waterbodies
88
What is a Total Maximum Daily Load?
the maximum amount of a pollutant that is allowed to enter a waterbody
89
What is air pollution?
the emission of compounds into the atmosphere at levels high enough to harm organisms and nonliving things
90
Volcanoes and natural forest fires are sources of air pollution that are human caused or natural sources?
natural sources
91
Automobiles, power plants, and factories are sources of air pollution that are human-caused or natural sources?
human-caused
92
Air pollution usually refers to pollution in the _____________.
troposphere
93
The troposphere is the first __ kilometers of the atmosphere. (SCIENCE!!!!! Different from SS)
10
94
The troposphere is the first __ miles of the atmosphere. (SCIENCE!!!!! Different from SS)
6
95
What is tropospheric pollution sometimes called?
ground-level pollution
96
What science discipline was used in the development of air pollutant regulations?
environmental science
97
When was the US Clean Air Act (CAA) passed?
| NOTE: THERE ARE 2 CLEAN AIR ACTS, one in sci and the other in fa.
1970
| The other CAA is in FA and it was passed in 1963.
98
What did scientists do for the CAA?
they identified the 6 most common and harmful pollutants
99
What are the pollutants listed in the CAA known as?
primary pollutants
100
What are the primary pollutants in the CAA?
sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, lead, particulate matter, and ground-level ozone
101
What is the chemical formula for sulfur dioxide?
SO2
102
What are natural sources of SO2?
volcanic eruptions
103
What are anthropogenic sources of SO2?
burning of fossil fuels, like coal and oil
104
What do all living things contain?
sulfur
105
Why do fossil fuels release SO2 when burned?
because all living things (or once living things) contain sulfur
106
What part of the body does SO2 affect?
SO2 harms mammalian respiratory systems
107
SO2 is particularly harmful for what people?
people with asthma or respiratory illnesses
108
What can SO2 do in the atmosphere?
it can undergo a chemical reaction to form sulfuric acid
109
SO2 can undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form what?
sulfuric acid
110
Sulfuric acid is one of the main components in what?
acid rain
111
What percent of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas (N2)?
78%
112
What does combustion of N2 in the atmosphere lead to the formation of?
various nitrogen oxides
113
What do nitrogen oxides play a role in forming?
ozone and other common air pollutants
114
Nitrogen oxides can undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form what?
nitric acid
115
What is carbon monoxide (CO)?
a colorless, odorless gas that is formed during incomplete combustion of organic matter
116
What is a major source of CO emissions?
automobile emissions
117
What does CO do in the mammalian body?
it binds with hemoglobin and intereferes with the transport of oxygen
118
What does CO bind with in the body?
hemoglobin
119
What is hemoglobin?
an oxygen transporting protein in the mammalian body
120
What does CO interfere with the transport of in the body?
oxygen
121
What can exposure to CO cause?
dizziness, headaches, confusion, loss of consciousness, and even death
122
When did the use of leaded gasoline end in the US?
the 1970s
123
When was the use of leaded gasoline ended globally?
2021
124
What was the last country to use leaded gasoline?
Algeria
125
What impacts does lead have?
blood production, producing anemia, and can have neurological impacts
126
What is particulate matter?
solid or liquid particles suspended in air
127
Particulate matter most commonly comes from a class of pollutants resulting from what fuels?
dirty burning fuels, like coal, oil, and wood stoves
128
What are some examples of natural sources that produce particulates?
forest fires and volcanoes
129
What are some examples of anthropogenic sources that produce particulates?
coal, oil, and wood stoves
130
What is the size of a particulate?
0.01 to 100 microns in diameter
131
Particulates are the thickness of what?
a human hair
132
What impacts does particulate matter have on humans?
they can cause lung cancer and other issues in the lungs
133
What do particulates block?
sunlight
134
What are photochemical air pollutants?
a class of air pollutants formed from action by the Sun on compounds that are oxides
135
What type of compound forms photochemical air pollutants?
oxides
136
Photochemical pollutants are among the compounds that comprise _______________ _______.
photochemical smog
137
What is photochemical smog?
the haze that appears over cities
138
Why do cities like Los Angeles experience photochemical smog in particular?
because they are surrounded by mountains, which help trap the smog
139
What is the most important photochemical air pollutant?
ozone
140
What is the chemical formula for ozone?
O3
141
Why is O3 the most important photochemical air pollutant?
because of its positive and negative effects
142
Where is O3 formed?
the stratosphere
143
What does O3 do in the stratosphere?
it absorbs UV light and removes harmful radiation
144
Ozone is 3 ________ molecules bound together? (element)
oxygen
145
What is ozone in the troposphere?
an oxidant harmful to plants and animals
146
How are the National Ambient Air Quality Standards different from the Clean Air Act?
the NAAQS includes more air pollutants, like mercury
147
How is mercury as an air pollutant produced?
through the burning of coal
148
The Hazardous Air Pollutant section is part of what legislation?
the Clean Air Act
149
What type of pollutant are most of the criteria pollutants classified as?
primary pollutants
150
What type of pollutant are smog and acid rain?
secondary pollutants
151
What are secondary pollutants?
pollutants that result from chemical reactions in the atmosphere, usually primary pollutants before transformed
152
What powers photochemical reactions?
solar energy, atmospheric water, and higher temperatures
153
What type of pollutants are nitric acid and sulfuric acid?
secondary pollutants
154
What pollutants do volcanoes release?
SO2, CO, NOx, and particulates
155
What pollutants do forest fires release?
CO, NOx, and particulates
156
What summer can provide a critical example of how wildfires impact air quality?
summer of 2023
157
What place in particular during the summer of 2023 produced high carbon emissions due to intensive forest fires?
Canada
158
How does temperature change with increasing altitude?
it typically decreases
159
What happens when a warm layer of air blankets a cooler layer below it?
atmospheric inversion
160
What happens to ground-level pollutants when atmospheric inversion occurs?
they gat trapped and accummulate in the troposphere
161
Where are atmospheric inversions particularly common?
cities with high concentrations of vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions
162
During atmospheric inversions, what are ground-level emissions trapped by?
an inversion layer
163
Non-renewable and renewable energy are what type of energy source?
primary energy sources
164
What type of energy source is electricity?
secondary energy source
165
What energy do electricity-generating power plants convert?
chemical potential energy to electrical potential energy
166
How do nonrenewable energy sources generate electricity?
they burn them and heat up water to produce steam, which turns a turbine and then a generator
167
What energy is electrical potential energy converted to when powering a motor?
kinetic energy
168
What energy is electrical potential energy converted to when powering lights?
radiant energy
169
What energy is electrical potential energy converted to when cooking?
heat energy
170
When were the plants that formed coal buried?
160 to 400 million years ago
171
What factors contributed to organisms being converted to coal?
limited decomposition and rich organic matter compacted by pressure and temperature over lots of time
172
Where did the tropical plants that formed coal live?
in swamps and marshes
173
What are the types of coal from lesser to greater energy content?
peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite
174
What type of coal has the greatest energy content?
anthracite
175
What type of coal has the least energy content?
peat
176
Why is coal ideal?
because it is very energy-dense and plentiful
177
What is coal primarily used for?
electricity generation and industrial processes, like making steel
178
What ways are used to mine coal?
deep shaft mining and surface mining
179
What occurs with deep-shaft mining?
tunnels are dug as deep as 2,000 feet and people descend and mine the coal
180
How deep can the shafts in deep-shaft mining be?
up to 2,000 feet deep
181
What type of mining is digging a pit?
surface mining
182
What type of mining is removing a mountaintop?
surface mining
183
What are some adverse environmental impacts associated with coal mining?
the emission of harmful air pollutants, degraded water quality of nearby waterbodies, and acid mine drainage
184
What are some air pollutants produced by coal mining?
SO2, mercury, and particulate matter
185
What is petroleum?
the mixture of hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur that occurs in underground deposits
186
What is petroleum the mixture of?
hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur
187
Petroleum formed from the remains of what organisms?
ocean-dwelling plankton
188
When did the ocean-dwelling plankton that formed petroleum die and get buried?
65 to 250 million years ago
189
Petroleum often occurs in places with what type of rocks?
porous rocks, like sandstone, that are capped by nonporous rocks
190
What do petroleum reserves contain?
natural gas and oil
191
What must petroleum be extracted with?
wells, which pump up the petroleun from the ground
192
When the gas in the petroleum deposits is separated, what is the remaining product known as?
liquid petroleum or crude oil
193
What is another name for liquid petroleum?
crude oil
194
What is currently the greatest energy source in the US?
petroleum
195
Why is petroleum used so often?
it is very convenient, energy-dense, and burns cleaner compared to coal
196
What can be removed when processing oil?
sulfur and other impurities
197
How do low-sulfur oils compare with regular oils?
they are more expensive to produce, thus making them expensive to purchase
198
Why does natural gas lie above oil in the rock strata?
because it is less dense than oil
199
What is the result of natural gas having very few impurities?
it produces virtually no SO2 and particulates
200
Why does natural gas produce virtually no SO2 and particulates?
it has very few impurities
201
How much more efficient is methane at trapping heat than CO2?
25x more efficient
202
What percent of natural gas is methane?
80% to 95%
203
What is a major source of methane pollution with natural gas?
the burning and leaking of the fuel
204
Petroleum produces ___% as much CO2 emissions compared to coal when burning.
85
205
Natural gas produces ___% as much CO2 equivalent emissions compared to coal when burning.
60%
206
What is another name for hydraulic fracturing?
fracking
207
What is fracking?
injecting high-pressure solutions of water, sand, and chemicals into bedrock to create fractures in the rock and extract oil and gas
208
What has allowed us to reach previously unreachable reservoirs of oil and gas?
fracking, paired with horizontal drilling
209
What has been the major reason that natural gas has overtaken coal as the second most used energy source?
fracking
210
What is the second most used energy source?
natural gas
211
What are the main concerns with fracking?
it hurts the environment and human health
212
What do the chemicals used in fracking contain?
methanol, ehthylene glocol, and propargyl alcohol
213
How are the chemicals used in fracking to the human health?
hazardous
214
What resource in particular does fracking use a lot of?
water
215
How many gallons of water has fracking used up since 2011?
1.5 trillion gallons
216
How many gallons of water can a single fracking well use?
40 million gallons
217
Where does much large-scale fracking take place?
Texas, where droughts are common
218
What is the downside to nuclear power?
it produces radioactive waste
219
What is the fuel for nuclear power?
uranium
220
What are some rocks that may contain uranium?
shale and sandstone
221
How many pounds of uranium must be extracted to produce 7 pounds of uranium oxide?
2,000
222
How many pounds of uranium oxide will 2,000 pounds of uranium produce?
7
223
After uranium is removed from the rock and concentrated, what is the remaining material called?
slag piles
224
What are 2 locations where commercial operations mine uranium?
Western US and some Canada
225
What happens after the extraction of uranium?
the ore is enriched
226
What is the enrichment of uranium ore?
a process that removes all impurities so that it might contain 2% to 3% uranium oxide
227
After the enrichment of uranium ore, what percent of it might contain uranium oxide?
2% to 3%
228
What happens after uranium is enriched?
it is processed into pellets
229
What are pellets of uranium put into?
hollow fuel rods
230
Approximately how tall are uranium fuel rods?
6 feet high
231
How many fuel rods may a typical nuclear reactor contain?
75 to 100
232
What process does a pellet of uranium oxide undergo?
radioactive decay
233
What is radioactive decay?
the process of splitting atoms into more atoms
234
What is a fission reaction?
when an atom splits and gives off heat
235
What happens when an atom splits?
a fission reaction occurs, and a small amount of heat is given off
236
What is the heat given off from fission reactions in nuclear reactors used for?
used to heat water, which becomes steam and turns a turbine
237
What is the most concentrated of all the energy sources discussed in the USAP Science Resource Guide?
uranium
238
A pound of enriched uranium is smaller than what common object?
a baseball
239
A million gallons of gasoline has the energy content of about how many pounds of enriched uranium?
1 pound
240
How much enriched uranium has the same energy as 260,000 tons of coal?
10 tons
241
A pound of enriched uranium is equal to about how many gallons of gasoline?
1,000,000 (1 million) gallons of gasoline
242
10 tons of enriched uranium is equal to about how much coal?
260,000 tons of coal
243
There is _________ times more energy in uranium than in coal.
26,000
244
Do nuclear power plants produce air pollution when operating?
No, so it is considered clean energy
245
When during nuclear power plant generation are fossil fuels used?
when the plant is constructed, when the uranium is mined and processed, when the fuels are transported, and when the plant is decommissioned
246
What is the lifespan of a nuclear power plant?
50 years
247
Why do nuclear power plants have to be decommissioned after around 50 years?
because the level of radioactivity in the plant becomes too high
248
How many grams of CO2 are generated per kilowatt-hour of electricity for a nuclear power plant?
60 grams
249
How many grams of CO2 are generated per kilowatt-hour of electricity for a coal power plant?
800 to 1,100 grams
250
How many accidents have contributed to protests against nuclear power in the US?
3
251
What 3 accidents have contributed to protests against nuclear power in the US?
Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania, Chernobyl in Ukraine, and Fukushima in Japan
252
When was the Three Mile Island accident?
March 28, 1979
253
Where was the Three Mile Island plant?
Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania
254
What caused the Three Mile Island accident?
human error, when a cooling water valve wasn't closed
255
During the Three Mile Island accident, what happened as a result of a cooling water valve not being closed?
there was a loss of coolant in the nuclear core, leading to overheating and radiation being released
256
What movie was released around the time of the Three Mile Island accident that made it worse?
"The China Syndrome"
257
What happened in "The China Syndrome"?
a nuclear plant suffered a major meltdown
258
The release of "The China Syndrome" and the Three Mile Island accident led to what?
widespread fear and anger over the safety of nuclear power plants
259
How did the Three Mile Island accident compare to the Chernobyl accident?
the Chernobyl accident was worse and more serious
260
When was the Chernobyl accident?
April 26, 1986
261
Where was the Chernobyl accident?
Chernobyl, Ukraine
262
What caused the Chernobyl accident?
an explosion and fire exposed the core of one of the reactors
263
How many people died immediately of acute radiation exposure in the Chernobyl accident?
31
264
During the Chernobyl accident, 31 people died immediately from what?
acute radiation exposure
265
The Chernobyl accident has been characterized as what type of incident?
a runaway reactor incident
266
What caused the fires and explosions at the Chernobyl accident?
operators disconnected emergency cooling systems and removed control rods, despite being in violation of safety regulations
267
What happened during the Chernobyl accident when operators disconnected emergency cooling systems and removed control rods?
the nuclear explosions went out of control and the plant overheated, causing fires to burn
268
What made the fires in the Chernobyl accident worse?
the flammable graphite control rods, which burn worse than water control rods
269
When did the Fukushima accident occur?
March 2011
270
What caused the Fukushima accident?
an earthquake which resulted in a tsunami which flooded the plant, causing radioactive leakage
271
Where did the tsunami that caused the Fukushima accident occur?
the island of Honshu
272
How many people died due to the tsunami which caused the Fukushima accident?
18,000
273
How many people were forced to evacuate due to the Fukushima accident?
150,000
274
How many years will the Fukushima plant need to finish decontamination work?
40 years
275
What is a nuclear fuel rod considered after it is depleted and doesn't have enough energy to produce heat?
it is considered spent
276
What is a spent nuclear fuel rod?
a fuel rod that does not have enough energy left to produce adequate heat to generate electricity
277
For how long do spent nuclear fuel rods remain a threat to humans and other organisms?
tens of thousands of years
278
As of now, where are nuclear power plants required to store spent fuel rods?
at the plant it itself
279
How deep are the pools of water in nuclear power plants that store spent fuel rods?
20 feet deep
280
What do the pools of water in nuclear power plants that store spent fuel rods do?
they act as a shielf from radiation
281
What happens after fuel rods are spent?
the rods are moved to cement storage canisters, called dry cask storage
282
What is dry cask storage?
storing spent fuel rods into cement storage canisters
283
How many spent fuel rods can each cement storage container fit?
2 to 6 dozen
284
What does USDE stand for?
US Department of Energy
285
What did the USDE start examining in 1978?
the Yucca Mountain site
286
When did the USDE start examining Yucca Mountain?
1978
287
Where is Yucca Mountain?
about 100 miles Northwest of Las Vegas
288
What did the USDE want Yucca Mountain for?
they wanted to use it as a repository for nuclear waste
289
Which group of people in particular protested against the use of Yucca Mountain?
Nevadans and the Western Shoshone people
290
Why did the Western Shoshone people protest against the Yucca Mountain site?
because that land was sacred to them
291
What contributed to the Yucca Mountain site not being built?
protests from local people and uncertainty from the scientific community
292
Why were many scientists unsure about the use of Yucca Mountain?
they were skeptical about whether the site was geologically stable enough to house nuclear waste for thousands of years
293
As of 2023, how are the plans for Yucca Mountain?
they are basically ended
294
Is the use of fossil fuels sustainable?
No
295
What is the use of sustainable energy based on?
the use of renewable energy
296
The sun and wind are what types of energy sources?
renewable energy sources
297
Are biofuels renewable?
They are potentially renewable
298
How are biofuels potentially renewable?
they are only renewable if their use is balanced by new growth
299
How can the sustainability of energy use be improved?
by using less energy through improving energy efficiency and conservation
300
Where is almost all energy on Earth derived from?
the Sun
301
The Sun is responsible for evaporating water, which is an essential aspect of what cycle?
the hydrologic cycle
302
What type of solar energy are wind and hydro?
indirect solar energy
303
What are examples of direct and indirect energy sources?
fossil fuels, solar, wind, hydro, and biomass
304
What are the significant sources of energy that are not solar-based?
nuclear, geothermal, and tidal
305
Every day, the Earth is bathed with what type of energy?
solara energy
306
What is the amount of solar energy that reaches the atmosphere called?
the solar constant
307
What is the solar constant? (watts)
1,370 watts per square meter
308
Is all the energy in the solar constant available for our use?
No, some of it is reflected and absorbed by the atmosphere
309
How many watts of solar energy arrive at the equator?
usually 200 watts, but can vary from 50 to 300 watts
310
What is the solar energy that is potentially available for use known as?
the solar potential
311
Where is the Andasol solar power station?
Spain
312
What is the solar input at night?
0
313
What region of the US has the greatest solar potential?
the Southwest
314
In the Southwest, US, solar energy is available what percent of the time?
90%
315
What is the collection of solar energy directly from the rays of the Sun without an intermediate technology?
passive solar energy
316
For how long has passive solar energy been harnessed?
thousands of years
317
What has passive solar energy been used for?
heating homes and cooking
318
In the Northern Hemisphere, why do many people construct houses with windows facing South?
because it allows the Sun's rays to penetrate the house better
319
What is thermal inertia?
material that once heated, stays hot or vice versa
320
Do stone and concrete have thermal inertia?
Yes
321
Do wood and glass have thermal inertia?
No
322
What is passive solar energy?
the collection of solar energy directly from the Sun's rays without an intermediate technology, like a pump or blower
323
What are active solar systems?
systems that utilize energy from the Sun with the assistance of fans, blowers, pumps, etc
324
What is active solar energy primarily used for?
heating water and generating electricity
325
What is used to convert energy from the Sun directly to electricity?
a photovoltaic solar cell
326
What material in the photovoltaic solar cell generates the electricity?
silicon dioxide
327
Why is silicon dioxide used in a photovoltaic solar cell?
because it generates an electrical current when exposed to solar energy
328
What are usually the components of a photovoltaic solar cell?
glass, silicon dioxide, and a metal such as arsenic or antimony
329
How many watts of energy will a single photovoltaic solar cell generate?
1 or 2 watts
330
Why are metals used in photovoltaic solar cells?
to increase the voltage output
331
How many photovoltaic solar cells are typically joined together?
24 or more
332
Where are photovoltaic solar cells often mounted?
on rooftoops of buildings
333
What is a wind turbine?
a device that converts the kinetic energy of wind to the potential energy of electricity
334
What energies does a wind turbine convert?
kinetic energy (wind) to potential energy (electricity)
335
How tall is a contemporary wind turbine?
around 100 meters
336
How long are the blades of a contemporary wind turbine?
40 to 75 meters long
337
How much electricity will an average wind turbine generate per month?
843,000 kWh
338
An average wind turbine will generate enough electricity to power _____ average US homes.
940
339
What are the most rapidly growing sites for wind-generated electricity?
offshore wind park
340
How many offshore wind farms are in Northern Europe?
over 40
341
How many offshore wind farms in the US?
2
342
What state is Palm Springs in?
California
343
What forms of energy can provide electricity in remote locations without transmission lines?
wind and solar
344
Do wind and solar produce air or water pollution when the energy is being produced?
No
345
What is the main disadvantage to wind and solar?
the Sun doesn't shine all the time, and the wind doesn't blow all the time
346
Because conditions for wind and solar are not always ideal, what is needed?
a method of storage
347
What does the storage of electricity often require?
large-scale battery production
348
What material do batteries use?
lithium, cobal, and other minerals
349
What is the aesthetic disadvantage of wind turbines?
many people do not like living in a place where they can see or hear the turbines
350
What is an environmental disadvantage to wind?
the amount of bird and bat deaths
351
How many birds die each year in collisions with wind turbines in the US?
10,000 to 40,000
352
How is the issue of bird deaths caused by wind turbines being addressed?
many turbines are now being moved and designed to be away from migration paths
353
What environmental objections have occurred regarding the use of turbines off the New England coast?
they can harm migratory and endangered whales
354
What is hydroelectric power more commonly known as?
hydropower
355
What is hydropower?
the use of water to generate electricity
356
What are the 2 most widely used renewable energy sources in the US?
biomass and hydropower
357
What percent of renewable energy in the US is accounted for by hydropower?
28.7%
358
What percent of total electricity in the US is generated by hydropower?
6.2%
359
In hydropower, what is the kinetic energy of flowing water used for?
used to spin a turbine
360
The amount of electricity generated with hydropower depends on what?
the vertical distance of the water falling and the flow rate
361
What is a flow rate of water?
the amount of water that flows past a certain point per unit of time
362
What are the 2 main types of hydropower?
run of the river and water impoundment
363
What happens in run of the river hydro generation?
water is diverted from a river to a channel, where it spins through a turbine and returned to the river
364
Are run of the river hydro plants large or small scale?
small scale
365
How many MW of electricity does a run of the river plant generate at peak capacity?
1 MW
366
A megawatt is enough to power how many homes?
1,000 homes
367
How many homes can a run of the river plant provide electricity to at peak capacity?
about 1,000 homes
368
What is run of the river hydro generation dependent on?
the natural flow of the river
369
When is run of the river hydro generation the lowest?
during the summer months
370
How do run of the river plants compare with water impoundment on environmental impacts?
they are much lower
371
What are used to help fish swim upstream when a hydro dam is present?
fish ladders
372
What are fish ladders?
a series of pools and pipes designed like steps to allow fish to travel upstream
373
What are the downsides to fish ladders?
some fish find it hard to use and predators sometimes know to stay there to find prey
374
How does water impoundment compare with run of the river in reliability?
water impoundment is more reliable
375
What is water impoundment?
storing water in a reservoir behind a dam, and releasing it when needed
376
Why is water impoundment more common than run of the river?
because it allows for electricity generation on demand
377
Where are the Hydro Quebec dams?
near James Bay, Canada
378
What form of hydro generation are the Hydro Quebec dams?
water impoundment
379
How many MWs can the Hydro Quebec dams near James Bay, Canada produce at peak?
7,300 MW
380
Hydro dams can create conditions for mercury to be converted to what?
methyl mercury
381
Where does methyl mercury concentrate and accumulate?
in the fatty tissue of fish and humans
382
What is biomass energy?
the energy in organic matter
383
Where was biomass energy originally derived?
the Sun
384
Wood, animal dung, plant remains, and ethanol are what type of energy?
biomass energy
385
What does MSW stand for?
municipal solid waste
386
Biomass products account for what percent of all renewable energy in the US?
37%
387
Where is MSW burned?
in waste-to-energy facilities
388
What is ethanol mostly made from?
corn
389
What percent of biomass energy comes from MSW?
25%
390
Agricultural wastes and methane from landfills make up what percent of biomass energy?
5%
391
In developing countries, what is typically the most common biomass energy?
animal dung
392
What is the carbon in biomass energy considered to be?
modern carbon
393
Why is fossil carbon worse than modern carbon?
because it adds to the amount of carbon in the atmosphere
394
Why do some old forests remove very little carbon?
because their productivity is not much greater than their respiration
395
What is the most common biofuel?
ethanol
396
What is ethanol made by?
the fermentation, or decomposition, of sugars and starches that results in the production of alcohol
397
How many gallons of ethanol are made and used in the US each year?
1.8 billion gallons
398
What percent of ethanol is derived from corn and corn by-products?
92%
399
What is ethanol most commonly mixed with?
gasoline
400
At what ratio is ethanol typically mixed with gasoline?
1:10, or 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline
401
Why is ethanol used in gasoline?
it boosts its octane, helps oxygenate it, prevents freezing, and reduces the amount of gasoline used
402
How much less efficient is a 1:10 ethanol blend compared to pure gasoline?
2% to 3% less efficient
403
What is the heat produced from the radioactive decay of elements deep in the Earth?
geothermal energy
404
Geothermal energy will not deplete as long as what?
there is an Earth
405
Is geothermal expensive to tap?
No
406
What can geothermal energy be used to do?
heat water or generate electricity using steam to spin turbines
407
What are the downsides to geothermal energy?
it can emit localized dangerous gases and is geographically limited to areas that are active
408
What is Iceland known for?
its active volcanoes
409
Iceland gets what percent of its energy from renewable resources?
100%
410
What percent of Iceland's electricity is generated from hydro?
73%
411
What percent of Iceland's electricity is generated from geothermal?
27%
412
What is geothermal energy?
the heat produced from the radioactive decay of elements deep in the Earth
413
Where are tidal generation plants operating?
Maine, Washington, Brittany in France, and Nova Scotia in Canada
414
Is tidal energy a major energy source?
No
415
What is the primary reason tidal energy is not a main energy source?
because the difference in water level between high and low tides is not sufficient
416
In order to harness tidal energy, what must be built?
power stations, like an estuary, must be directly on the coastline
417
What effect does an estuary have on the ecology of organisms?
it as a disruptive effect on the local organisms
418
What is the main reason nearby residents of tidal generation stations oppose it?
because of the aesthetic deterioration, as it doesn't look good
419
What is energy efficiency?
how effective we are at getting usable work from an input of energy
420
What energy source is 100% efficient?
None
421
What energy is usually lost at each conversion?
heat energy
422
The more steps there are in the process of turning energy to work, the more opportunities for what?
a loss of energy, making the system more inefficient
423
What percent efficiency do most older, conventional electricity generating plants have?
36%
424
What percent efficiency do newer coal-burning power plants have?
up to 42%
425
Are efficiencies of over 50% possible for coal-fired plants?
Yes, but they are not feasible as of now
426
Natural gas-fired power plants can reach efficiencies of how much?
60%
427
What is global energy efficiency?
roughly 37%
428
What are the goals for energy use in a sustainable society?
reducing costs and pollutants while increasing efficiency
429
What percent of our energy came from renewables in 2022?
21.5%
430
What percent of our energy came from nuclear in 2022?
18.2%
431
What percent of our energy came from coal in 2022?
19.5%
432
What percent of our energy came from natural gas in 2022?
39.8%
433
What percent of our energy came from wind in 2022?
10.2%
434
What percent of our energy came from hydro in 2022?
6.2%
435
What percent of our energy came from solar in 2022?
3.4%
436
What percent of our energy came from biomass in 2022?
1.3%
437
What percent of our energy came from geothermal in 2022?
0.4%
438
What percent of our energy came from petroleum in 2022?
0.9%
439
What are necessary aspects of energy sustainability?
conservation and increased efficiency
440
What is conservation?
a consumer-based approach that focuses on reducing energy use by changing users' habits and actions
441
What are some examples of conservation measures?
turning off lights when not needed, driving less, taking a shorter shower, etc
442
What is the only drawback to conservation?
having to change habits
443
What is increasing energy efficiency?
using less energy to do the same work
444
Will a 1 ton car or 2 ton car use more energy to get from one place to another?
a 2 ton car because it needs more force to move
445
A smaller, lighter car will consume more/less gasoline in the process and therefore increase/decrease energy efficiency. (choose from the slashes)
less, increase
446
What is peak demand?
the greatest quantity of electricity that will be needed at any time
447
What do utilities do in order to meet peak demand?
they build more power plants or offer lower rates to customers during off-peak hours
448
How is electricity usage monitored?
by having 1 meters at each place, one recording peak and the other recording non-peak demand
449
When is peak demand usually?
8 AM to 8 PM
450
Is electricity during peak demand more expensive or cheaper?
more expensive
451
What organization regulates the Energy Star Program?
the EPA, Environmental Protection Agency
452
How can an appliance get an energy star?
if it completes its work with a certain level of efficiency
453
Would an air conditioner that removes 10,000 Btus of heat per hour while using less than 1,000 watts receive an Energy Star?
Yes
454
Would an air conditioner that removes 10,000 Btus of heat per hour while using 1,200 watts receive an Energy Star?
No
455
How much might 200 watts for an hour cost?
2 cents
456
What percent of a typical power plant's output is 20 MW?
4%
457
What is 4% of a typical power plant's output?
20 MW
458
What does IPCC stand for?
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
459
What organizations established the IPCC?
the UNEP and WMO
460
When was the IPCC established?
1988
461
What is change that occurs in the chemistry, biology, and physical properties of worldwide systems referred to as?
global change
462
Over the last 800,000 years, what has the concentration of CO2 ranged from?
180 to 280 ppm
463
Over how many years has the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere ranged from 180 to 280 ppm?
800,000 years
464
What is global change
change that occurs in the chemistry, biology, and physical properties of worldwide systems
465
What is climate change?
variation in the average weather
466
What is global warming?
rising temperatures on the Earth's surface relative to pre-industrial temps
467
What does global change include, besides climate change and global warming?
other environmental changes done by humans, like large-scale deforestation
468
If you are in a car with the closed, the temperature outside may be 10C (50F), but how hot can it get inside the car?
30C, or 86F
469
What causes the inside of the car when the windows are rolled down to get warmer?
the greenhouse effect
470
Do the windows of a car allow much solar energy to enter?
Yes
471
Do the windows of a car allow much energy to escape?
No
472
In Earth's heating system, what is the main energy input?
solar radiation
473
In Earth's heating system, what are the main energy outputs?
reflection of solar energy and infrared radiation of Earth
474
The hospitable temperatures on Earth are a result of what?
greenhouse gases
475
What is the most common GHG?
water vapor
476
What would Earth's temperature be without GHGs?
-18C or 0 F
477
What is the greatest difficulty in determining if global warming is occurring?
establishing a temperature change that has occurred
478
Earth surface and ocean temperatures have been measured directly since when?
1880
479
There is a high degree of confidence in one global temperature data set maintained by who and where?
John Hansen at the NASA Institute for Space Studies in NYC
480
How often is Hansen's graph updated?
monthly, and is posted on NASA's website
481
How is the increase in temperatures between 1880 and 2020 according to Hansen's graph?
steady
482
Global temperatures are higher than at any time in how many years?
the last 150,000 years
483
In tree rings, what do wider rings correspond with?
better temperatures for growth, usually meaning warmer and wetter conditions
484
What is our knowledge about the warming of Earth and its past temperatures primarily based on?
surrogate indicators
485
Marine corals add what each year?
calcium carbonate bands
486
Corals can record temperatures for how many years?
tens and sometimes hundreds of years
487
Trees can provide records of temperature for how many years?
decades and centuries, sometimes for more than a thousand years
488
Atmospheric CO2 has increased by how much since 1750?
50%
489
How much has the global average temperature increased since 1880? (Fahranheit)
2F
490
Snow cover has decreased by how much since the 1960s?
10%
491
The growing season has lengthened by how much since the 1960s in the Northern Hemisphere?
1-4 days for each decade since
492
What is a good phrase that describes the effects we are facing regarding climate change as of now?
"The tip of the iceberg"
493
Global mean sea level, in part as a result of melting glaciers, is expected to rise by how much by 2100?
0.1 to 0.9 meters
494
Global mean sea level is expected to rise by 0.1 to 0.9 meters by when?
2100
495
What is the Paris Agreement?
a policy that provides a framework for what every country can do to reduce GHG emissions
496
When was the Paris Agreement created/signed?
2015
497
How will global warming affect plant species in the Northern Hemisphere?
it will cause them to move upward, sometimes in altitude
498
As sea levels rise, coastal and island communities will be threatened by what?
inundation, contamination of drinking water, erosion of coastal areas, and flooding
499
Where have nations already been threatened with flooding from rising sea levels?
the South Pacific
500
What can cause the inputs of Earth's heating systems to be greater than the outputs?
an increase in solar radiation or a decrease in outgoing reflected solar radiation
