Objectives exam 2

Question 1

demonstrate safe administration of oxygen therapy

Answer 1

No smoking
no petroleum products
no hanging on bed
educate about smoke alarms
teach to change cylinder

Question 2

Identify nursing interventions to promote oxygen therapy

Answer 2

pulmonary toilet
assess lung sounds
set them up
monitor ox sats, skin color, RR, labor
Monitor for S/S of irritability, those who cant verbalize SOB
Monitor lab valves
give meds
perform suctioning, provide yankauer

Question 3

Theory of development pertaining to the young adult 20-39 years

Answer 3

Havighurst Stages and Tasks (learning is a lifelong task; failure to master a stage could alter development)

Freud’s theory focuses on motivation for behavior and is questionable for relevance in the 21st century. His theories are based on human drives: libido, aggression, and survival. His stages end at adulthood.

Piaget’s theory is that cognitive development requires adaptation, assimilation, and accommodation; draws on logical conclusion starting at adolescence and into adulthood.

Kohlberg’s moral theory expands on Piaget’s theory. Moral development refers to the changes in a person’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that influence their beliefs about right and wrong.

Erikson’s theory progresses through eight stages - mostly moving from stage to stage but sometimes regressing
Stage 6 - Intimacy v Isolation (21-40 years)
Choosing social group and romantic partner
Take on more commitments and responsibility
Choose an occupation

Question 4

Theory of development pertaining to the middle aged adult 40-65 years

Answer 4

piaget This is the formal operations of cognitive development (all of his adult stages)
Able to reflect on past and anticipate future
Memory is intact along with stored knowledge
Slowing of reaction time, speed of performance, and fluid intelligence

Erikson’s stage 7
Generativity vs stagnation

Generativity is the process of guiding the next generation or improving society as a whole.

Stagnation occurs when development ceases: a stagnant middle adult cannot guide the next generation or contribute to society.

Question 5

Theory of development pertaining to the older adult 65+

Answer 5

Erickson’s stage 8 Integrity vs despair

Adjusting to lifestyle changes (retirement)
Adapt to family structure changes (role reversals)
Changes in living arrangements
Deal with multiple losses
Facing death
Reflect on a life well-lived or regret on missed opportunities
Want to pass along wisdom

Question 6

Health problems in young adult

Answer 6

Substance abuse
obesity
STI
unplanned preg
inferitity
work accidents
violent dealth and injury (suicide)

Question 7

Health problems in middle adult

Answer 7

Cancer
Obesity
Type 2 Diabetes
Substance Abuse
Psychosocial stressors
Cardiovascular Disease
Tooth decay and gum disease

Plus… issues r/t depression, empty nest, aging parents, changes in physical appearance, decreased libido, medication

Question 8

Health problems in older adult

Answer 8

Decrease muscle strength, joint mobility, body and bone mass; increased fat deposits
Decreased CO; increased peripheral resistance and SBP
Decreased elasticity of chest wall, intercostals, muscle strength and cough reflex; increased anteroposterior diameter of chest, rigidity of lung tissue
Decreased saliva production, GI motility, gastric acid production
Decreased skin elasticity, nail growth; Increased dryness of skin, thinning of skin layers, nail thickening, hair thinning
Decreased glomerular filtration rate, blood flow to kidneys, bladder capacity, vaginal lubrication, hardness of erection
Decreased nerve cells, neurotransmitters, REM sleep, blood flow to CNS
Decreased insulin release, thyroid Decreased visual acuity (presbyopia, or impaired near vision) and depth perception, tear production, pupil size, accommodation, acuity of smell and taste, hearing of high-frequency sound, sense of balance, changes in pain sensation
Increased glare sensitivity, thickening of lens of the eye, changes in pain sensation
Macular degeneration causing loss of central vision (not a normal change, but a common one)
Decreased short-term memory; decreased reaction time, information-processing time

Question 9

Plan and evaluate nursing interventions for young adult

Answer 9

Immunizations (catch up + flu, covid) CDC vaccination table
Health Screenings (breast and testicular self exams)
Choosing a PCP
Routine Health Visits
Proper Nutrition – what nutrient is needed for childbearing women?
Adequate Exercise
Stress Management
Injury Prevention

Question 10

Plan and evaluate nursing interventions for middle adult

Answer 10

Nutrition of adequate protein, vitamin D, calcium, fruits, and vegetables
Weight bearing exercises 2x weekly
As little as 30 minutes a day of exercise
Immunizations
Hormone Replacement Therapy
Stress management
Injury prevention as mentioned in young adults
Regular dental and eye exams

Question 11

Plan and evaluate nursing interventions for older adult

Answer 11

shots
safety teaching
support environment
nutrition
modify activity
maintain independence
give empowerment

Question 12

Discuss variation if age-related physical and cognitive changes in the older adult

Answer 12

Memory Loss of short-term memory is more common than loss of long-term memory; thus, older adults may remember incidents from many years ago but may have trouble recalling what they did earlier in the day.
Physical health problems or medications may affect memory.
An active social life with complete engagement and participation in the community delays memory loss with aging
Regular mental exercises (e.g., crossword puzzles, conversation) appear to stimulate the brain and enhance memory.
Other factors that slow memory loss are getting adequate sleep and rest, eating a nourishing diet, and avoiding drugs and alcohol.

Question 13

Define ageism

Answer 13

aged based discrimatation

Question 14

Identify common misconceptions about aging

Answer 14

1. Depression and loneliness are normal in older adults.
2. The older I get, the less sleep I need.
3. Older adults can’t learn new things.
4. It is inevitable that older people will get dementia.
5. Older adults should take it easy and avoid exercise so they don’t get injured.
6. If a family member has Alzheimer’s disease, I will have it, too.
7. Now that I am older, I will have to give up driving.
8. Only women need to worry about osteoporosis.
9. I’m “too old” to quit smoking.
10. My blood pressure has lowered or returned to normal, so I can stop taking my medication

Question 15

Discuss factors affecting skin integrity

Answer 15

age
impaired mobility
nutrition and hydration
protein and cholestrol
ascorbic acid
hydration
diminished sensation or cognition
impaired circulation
medications
lifestyle
moisture

Question 16

Describe wound healing

Answer 16

Primary intention: Minimal or no tissue loss, edges well approximated (closed)
little scarring
Clean surgical wounds

Secondary intention: Open wounds or those not closed due to infections
Slowly heal
Prone to infection

Tertiary Intention involves two surfaces of granulation tissue brought together

Question 17

Use the Braden scale

Answer 17

Question 18

Plan nursing intervention to decrease risk of injury

Answer 18

Assess skin on initial assessment. This includes in skin folds, and places where equipment may cause an issue.
Document any wounds on admission. What are we documenting??
Send cultures and labs on admission.
Clean wounds from clean to dirty.
Apply appropriate dressing. What would the nurse consider when choosing a dressing?
Consult WOCN, if needed.
When would you consult the WOCN?

Question 19

use critical criteria on how to apply a sterile dressing

Answer 19

1. Gather Necessary Supplies
   
   • Sterile dressing (appropriate size)
   • Sterile gloves
   • Sterile gauze or cotton balls (if needed for wound cleaning)
   • Antiseptic solution (e.g., saline or another appropriate solution)
   • Adhesive tape or dressing retention strips (if needed)
   • Scissors (if needed)
   • Biohazard waste disposal container
2. Perform Hand Hygiene
   
   • Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, or use hand sanitizer if soap and water are not available.
3. Prepare the Work Area
   
   • Ensure you have a clean, well-lit area for the procedure. If necessary, clean the surface with an appropriate disinfectant before placing any supplies.
4. Put on Sterile Gloves
   
   • Open the sterile dressing package without touching the inside of the sterile field.
   • Carefully put on the sterile gloves, ensuring that you only touch the outside of the glove packaging when removing them, to maintain sterility.
5. Remove the Old Dressing (if applicable)
   
   • If there is an existing dressing, carefully remove it. Use a clean technique, and dispose of the old dressing in a biohazard container. If there is any drainage or exudate, note the amount and appearance for documentation.
   • Discard gloves and wash your hands after removing the old dressing.
6. Assess the Wound
   
   • Before applying the new dressing, assess the wound for any signs of infection, such as increased redness, swelling, or pus. If there are concerns, inform the healthcare provider.
   • Clean the wound if necessary using sterile saline or another prescribed solution. Use a sterile gauze pad or cotton ball to gently cleanse the wound in a wiping motion from the center outward to prevent contamination.
7. Apply the Sterile Dressing
   
   • Open the sterile dressing package and, without touching the inner portion, place the dressing gently over the wound. Ensure that the sterile side of the dressing is in contact with the wound.
   • If the dressing is a gauze pad, ensure it is the appropriate size to cover the wound completely.
   • Make sure the dressing is positioned to cover the entire wound and, if necessary, apply additional layers for absorption.
8. Secure the Dressing
   
   • Use adhesive tape or dressing retention strips to secure the dressing in place, ensuring it is snug but not too tight. Be careful not to apply the tape directly to the wound.
   • If the dressing is large, you may need additional strips or a secondary dressing to secure the initial one.
9. Dispose of Used Materials
   
   • Discard gloves and any other disposable items into the appropriate biohazard container.
   • Clean up the work area and properly dispose of any contaminated materials.
10. Perform Hand Hygiene Again
    - Wash your hands thoroughly again after the dressing change to prevent any potential contamination.
11. Document the Procedure
    - Document the dressing change in the patient’s medical record, including the condition of the wound, the type of dressing used, and any observations (e.g., signs of infection, amount and type of drainage, patient tolerance).

Question 20

Describe care of wounds with a drain

Answer 20

Penrose Drain – small tube, usually not sutured in place
Hemovac, Jackson-Pratt (JP) drains are suture in and are typically “placed to suction”. This means you compress the device to create suction and facilitate removal of drainage. These are the most common post surgical drains.

Question 21

phases of wound healing

Answer 21

1. Inflammatory Phase “Clean Up”
   2.proliferative growth phase
2. maturation phase …remodeling

Question 22

review anatomy of skin

Answer 22

Epidermis
Dermis
Sub q tissue

Question 23

you have two questions on wound staging

Question 24

dentify various sources of nutrition information.

Answer 24

Macronutrients: supply body with energy or kilocalories (kcals)
Protein, Carbohydrates, and Fats

Micronutrients: help manufacture, repair, and maintain cells

Vitamins are organic substances that are necessary for metabolism or preventing a particular deficiency disease.
Minerals are inorganic elements found in nature. They occur naturally in foods, as food additives and in supplements.

Question 25

Recognize the significance of nutrients in the human diet.

Answer 25

Protein is needed for healing Functions: They contribute to the growth, maintenance, and repair of body tissues. Combine with iron to form hemoglobin Fluid balance- proteins attract water Immune system – protein helps build white blood cells Secondary energy source lipids 20-35% of total daily calorie intake Essential for brain and nerve function Other functions: Aid in absorption of fat-soluble vitamins Flavor and satiety

Question 26

Assess factors affecting nutritional status.

Answer 26

Undernutrition Eating disorders Difficulty Chewing Alcoholism Vomiting Food Intolerances Metabolic Disorders Digestive Disorders Absorption Disorders Overweight / Obesity Overeating Insufficient Activity Metabolic Disorders Endocrine Disorders

Question 27

Assess nutritional status.

Answer 27

BMI CALORIES Weight

Question 28

Describe nursing interventions for patients with special nutritional needs.

Answer 28

NG tube, pegg tube, tpn feeding

Question 29

Client X is admitted to your department from a local mental health facility. The nursing staff reports Client X has been “acting different” and is confused. What lab would you expect the physician to order?

Answer 29

CNP

Question 30

Client Y was admitted with a dehisced abdominal wound. He is being discharged today. The nurse would instruct Client Y to consume sufficient amounts of

Answer 30

protein

Question 31

Client Z is admitted with a bowel obstruction. After placing a nasogastric tube (NG) to wall suction, you return a few minutes later and Client Z had 500 ml’s of greenish brown output. The ER nurse reported he had about 850 ml’s of emesis in the 4 hours he was in the ER. What lab value would you anticipate to be affected?

Answer 31

potassium

Question 32

Which of the following the following concepts concern the young adult? SATA A.Finding a partner? B. Becoming active in their church’s bible study program? C. Looking for a nursing home for their aging father? D. Safe sex practices? E. Hosting a party for a friend’s 30th birthday? F. Receiving a pneumonia vaccination? G. Purchasing the trendiest reading glasses? H. Getting a flu shot in October?

Answer 32

A, B,D,E,H

Question 33

Which psychoanalyst’s theory focuses on cognition?

Answer 33

A.Piaget B. Erikson C. Freud D .Kohlberg A

Question 34

A 50 year-old has stopped working, uninvolved with their children, and been drinking often. Which Erikson’s stage might they be in?

Answer 34

A. Intimacy B. Isolation C. Despair D. Stagnation D

Question 35

A 45 year-old female client arrives to the clinic for an annual physical and has had significant planned weight loss. What dietary recommendations does the nurse have for the client?

Answer 35

A. Fiber, folate, and B12. B. Protein and limit red wine to one glass daily. C. Supplements instead of food sources of Vitamin D and Calcium. D. Foods rich in or fortified with Vitamin D and Calcium. D

Question 36

An 86 year-old client arrives to the outpatient clinic for a procedure. When asked about Advanced Directives, the client states, “my kids don’t care if I die and I don’t blame them. I was not a good parent.” Which best describes what this client is experiencing?

Answer 36

A. depression B. Despair C. Dementia D. Delirium B

Question 37

A 73 year-old client wakes up from surgery in PACU and starts screaming that there is a gorilla in the room that is trying to kill them. What is this client experiencing?

Answer 37

A. depression B. Despair C. Dementia D. Delirium D.

Question 38

A 79 year-old client is receiving an annual check up with their PCP. When assessing orientation, the client states they are at their mother’s house waiting for lunch. The client’s caregiver said the client was oriented earlier and knew they were coming to the doctor, but is more forgetful of neighbors and family members. What is this client experiencing?

Answer 38

A. depression B. Despair C. Dementia D. Delirium C.

Question 39

A 73 year-old client arrives for annual check up. When asked about Advanced Directives, the client states they haven’t had the energy to think about it lately. What might this client be experiencing?

Answer 39

A. depression B. Despair C. Dementia D. Delirium A.

Question 40

What are the “catch up” vaccinations? SATA

Answer 40

Tdap Covid MMR HPV Hep A Flu Pneumonia Hep B A,C,E,F,H

Question 41

Order the steps when you suspect elder abuse.

Answer 41

Report to authorities. 2. Set up discharge resources.4. Ensure client safety. 1. Protect client password and communicate to staff members that the client is being protected. 3

Question 42

Discuss the use of proper body mechanics when providing patient care.

Answer 42

Body mechanics is a term used to describe the way we move our bodies. Use a wide stance to avoid injury when lifting and to make it easier to maintain balance. With a wide stance the center of gravity is closer to the base of support. With a narrow stance, the body is less stable. Avoid standing in one position for a long period of time. Do not lock knees when standing upright. Do not bend forward at the waist or neck to work in a low position. Sit with your feet flat on the floor and your knees below hips. Team Lift Use resources

Question 43

Describe types of exercise.

Answer 43

Aerobic Exercise uses large muscle groups and can be maintained continuously. Jogging, aerobics, and brisk walking are aerobic exercises. Anaerobic Exercise occurs when muscles must obtain energy from metabolic pathways that do not use oxygen. Rapid, intense exercises like sprinting and power lifting are examples of anaerobic exercises. Isometric Exercise is an exercise in which muscle contraction occurs without motion. It doesn’t require any equipment. Bedbound patients use isometric exercises to gain some strength. For example, asking the patient to press their hand against yours. Planking is an isometric exercise. Isotonic Exercise involves movement of the joint during muscle contraction. Almost any resistance exercise would be considered an isotonic exercise. For example, weight training or push ups. Isokinetic Exercise is exercise performed with specialized apparatuses that provide variable resistance to movement. It is a type of strength training. Machines at health clubs and physical therapy departments can be used for this form of exercise.

Question 44

.Assess for factors affecting mobility and exercise.

Answer 44

Developmental Stage: Older patients may not be as active. Obesity: leads to health problems and makes movement more difficult. Chronic Diseases: Inadequate amounts of protein to maintain and build tissue. Muscle wasting and fatigue lead to reduced activity. Lifestyle: Personal values about exercise and fitness make affect activity level. Environmental Factors: Weather, neighborhood, finances, and having support system can influence activity.

Question 45

Plan and implement nursing interventions for patients with alterations in mobility.

Answer 45

Work on energy conservation, building endurance, sleep patterns, ambulation, if possible, coordinated movement, and self initiated body positioning. If appropriate, teach about medications for pain. Ask if specific movements increase pain, ask about intensity, and frequency of pain. Promote Exercise – ask about barriers to exercise and discuss ways to overcome those barriers Teach Stress Relief Assess caregivers abilities and needs. Assess resources. Assess the home environment. Remember, we are planning our patients discharge needs beginning at admission.

Question 46

Define NPSG guidelines related to strategies to reduce the risk of infection.

Answer 46

Infection control bundles (also called care bundles) are guidelines for practice that are bundled together in an effort to prevent HAIs such as CAUTIs, CLABSIs, VAPs, and SSIs. Bundles are used worldwide as a measure to improve client safety and decrease mortality​​​​​​​. Although bundles vary from facility to facility, in general a bundle includes a protocol or guideline for how to handle client care to minimize the risk of infection, starting with hand hygiene. For a bundle to be effective, health care providers and nurses must receive training on how to effectively implement the practices it includes​​​​​​​.

Question 47

Discuss the six links in the chain of infection.

Answer 47

infectious agent reservoir portal of exit mode of transmission portal of entry suceptiable host

Question 48

Describe the stages of a typical infectious process.

Answer 48

Incubation. Infection begins in the stage between successful invasion of the pathogen into the body and the first appearance of symptoms. In this stage, the person does not suspect that they have been infected but may be capable of infecting others. This stage may last only a day, as with the influenza virus, or as long as several months or even years, as with tuberculosis. Prodrome. The prodromal stage is characterized by the first appearance of vague symptoms. For example, a person infected with a cold virus may experience a mild throat irritation. Not all infections have a prodromal stage. Illness. The patient becomes ill when the signs and symptoms of the disease appear. If the patient’s immune defenses and medical treatments (if any) are ineffective, this stage can end in death. Decline. When the patient’s immune defenses, along with any medical therapies, successfully reduce the number of pathogenic microbes. As a result, the signs and symptoms of the infection begin to fade. Convalescence. Healing begins as the remaining number of microorganisms approaches zero. Convalescence may require only a day or two or, for severe infections, as long as a year or more.

Question 49

Discuss factors that increase the risk of infection.

Answer 49

Being very young or very old Breaks in lines of defense Recuperating from other illness or injury Tobacco use Alcohol and other substance abuse Multiple sexual partners Environmental factors (working in daycare, living with mold in home, daily exposure to chemicals) chronic disease Medications Poor nutrition Lack of physical activity Poor sleep Stress and grief Nursing and medical procedures

Question 50

Compare and contrast standard precautions and transmission-based precautions to prevent spread of infection.

Answer 50

Standard precautions, the first tier of protection, apply to care of all patients. You must assume that every patient is potentially colonized or infected with an organism that could be passed to others in the healthcare setting. Hand hygiene before and after patient contact for every precaution, every time. Transmission-based precautions, the second tier of protection, are for patients with known or suspected infection or colonization with pathogens. Recall from the discussion on the chain of infection that pathogens may be transmitted by contact, droplet, or air. Each mode of transmission requires a different approach to prevent infection. These clients will often have supplies specific for their room or require thorough cleaning after use.

Question 51

Compare and contrast techniques and situations appropriate to medical or surgical asepsis.

Answer 51

medical Refers to procedures that decrease the potential for the spread of infections. Hand hygiene Environmental cleanliness Standard precautions Protective isolation surgical Sterilization can be accomplished through the use of special gases or high heat. Surgical equipment and implanted devices are examples of materials that must be sterilized. To create a sterile area, housekeeping personnel perform extensive cleaning using special solutions and procedures. All health personnel working in the area must wear appropriate surgical attire and perform

Question 52

Apply principles of infection control when caring for patients.

Answer 52

PPE, NEURTOPENIC PROCAUTIONS

Question 53

Use critical criteria to set up a sterile field.

Answer 53

- WAIST HIGH - DONT TURN BACK

Question 54

Define National Patient Safety Goals 

Answer 54

Goal 1. Identify patients correctly. Goal 2. Improve staff communication. Goal 3. Use medicines safely. Goal 6. Use alarms safely. Goal 7. Prevent infection. Goal 15. Identify patient safety risks (specifically, suicide risk). *UP 1. Prevent mistakes in surgery. *Universal Protocol (UP 1): “Prevent mistakes in surgery” is a preprocedure verification process to make sure that all documents, information, and equipment are available, and that the correct procedure is performed on the correct person and site.

Question 55

Assess patients’ individual risk factors for injury. 

Answer 55

Question 56

Identify safety hazards in the patient environment. 

Answer 56

Question 57

Assess patient for allergies and describe appropriate interventions. 

Answer 57

It is the provider’s responsibility to assess, report, and document clients’ allergies and to provide care that avoids exposure. Allergies should be quickly found on clients’ chart – in Epic is on the left side story board. Reaction to and/or treatment for allergy should also be in the chart. Those with severe reactions should educate friends, family, and coworkers about treatment in the event of an allergic reaction.

Question 58

Identify patients at risk for falls. Complete a fall risk assessment using a selected assessment tool. 

Answer 58

Morse scale used for falls ROUND HOURLY Be sure patient belongings are within reach on bedside table. Bed in lowest and locked positions with only necessary bed rails up. Bedrails up for clients who are sedated or unconscious. Avoid bedrails up for clients who attempt to get out of bed. Provided nonskid footwear. Use gait belt, lift, or other assisted transfer equipment when needed. Educate client often! Complete fall risk assessment for each client in regular intervals (typically q shift). Educate (and continue to educate) client how to use call light and ensure it is always within reach during rounding. Respond to call lights in a timely manner. Utilize fall risk alerts – armband, door sign Offer regular toileting and ambulation. Provide adequate lighting and free room from clutter. Education on assisted devices. Use of bed and chair alarms when necessary.

Question 59

Follow hospital safety protocols (fire, restraint, violence, etc.) at clinical site. 

Question 60

Virus

Answer 60

Here’s a list of common viruses along with their modes of transmission (contact, droplet, direct, indirect, or vector): 1. **Influenza (Flu)** - **Transmission**: Droplet - **Explanation**: Influenza is primarily transmitted through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks. It can also spread through contact with contaminated surfaces (indirect transmission). 2. **Coronavirus (COVID-19)** - **Transmission**: Droplet, Airborne (aerosol), Contact - **Explanation**: COVID-19 can spread through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks. It can also spread through airborne particles and by touching contaminated surfaces (indirect transmission). 3. **Common Cold (Rhinovirus)** - **Transmission**: Droplet, Contact (direct and indirect) - **Explanation**: Rhinovirus, which causes the common cold, is transmitted via respiratory droplets and by touching surfaces contaminated with the virus. Direct contact (e.g., shaking hands) can also transmit the virus. 4. **Varicella (Chickenpox)** - **Transmission**: Airborne (droplet), Direct contact - **Explanation**: Chickenpox spreads through direct contact with an infected person's rash or respiratory droplets when they cough or sneeze. 5. **Measles** - **Transmission**: Airborne (droplet), Direct contact - **Explanation**: Measles is highly contagious and spreads through respiratory droplets or by direct contact with an infected person's saliva, nasal secretions, or urine. 6. **Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)** - **Transmission**: Direct contact - **Explanation**: HSV is transmitted through direct contact with an infected person's skin or mucous membranes, typically through kissing, sexual contact, or from mother to child during childbirth. 7. **Hepatitis A** - **Transmission**: Fecal-oral (Indirect contact) - **Explanation**: Hepatitis A is typically spread through ingestion of contaminated food or water (indirect transmission) or by close contact with an infected person (direct contact). 8. **Hepatitis B** - **Transmission**: Direct contact (bloodborne) - **Explanation**: Hepatitis B is spread through contact with infected blood or bodily fluids (e.g., sharing needles, sexual contact). 9. **Hepatitis C** - **Transmission**: Direct contact (bloodborne) - **Explanation**: Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily through blood-to-blood contact, such as sharing needles or through unprotected sex with an infected person. 10. **Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)** - **Transmission**: Direct contact (bloodborne, sexual contact) - **Explanation**: HIV is transmitted through direct contact with infected blood, semen, vaginal fluids, or breast milk, typically through sexual contact or sharing needles. 11. **Norovirus** - **Transmission**: Fecal-oral (Indirect contact) - **Explanation**: Norovirus spreads through contaminated food or water (indirect transmission) and by touching surfaces contaminated with the virus (indirect transmission). 12. **Dengue Virus** - **Transmission**: Vector (mosquito) - **Explanation**: Dengue fever is spread by Aedes mosquitoes that carry the virus from person to person. 13. **Zika Virus** - **Transmission**: Vector (mosquito), Sexual contact, Direct contact - **Explanation**: Zika virus is mainly transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes but can also be spread through sexual contact and from a pregnant mother to her baby. 14. **West Nile Virus** - **Transmission**: Vector (mosquito) - **Explanation**: West Nile virus is transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. 15. **Ebola Virus** - **Transmission**: Direct contact (bodily fluids) - **Explanation**: Ebola spreads through direct contact with the blood, bodily fluids, or tissues of infected individuals or animals. 16. **Rabies** - **Transmission**: Vector (animal bite) - **Explanation**: Rabies is transmitted through the bite of an infected animal, typically through saliva entering the wound. 17. **Poliovirus** - **Transmission**: Fecal-oral (Indirect contact) - **Explanation**: Poliovirus is transmitted through contaminated water or food (indirect transmission) or through contact with fecal matter. 18. **Rotavirus** - **Transmission**: Fecal-oral (Indirect contact) - **Explanation**: Rotavirus spreads through contact with fecal matter and contaminated food, water, or surfaces (indirect transmission). 19. **Human Papillomavirus (HPV)** - **Transmission**: Direct contact (sexual contact) - **Explanation**: HPV is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, and oral sex. 20. **Smallpox (Variola)** - **Transmission**: Airborne (droplet), Direct contact - **Explanation**: Smallpox spreads through respiratory droplets or direct contact with an infected person's rash or bodily fluids. 21. **Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)** - **Transmission**: Direct contact (animal-to-human) - **Explanation**: Avian influenza primarily spreads from infected birds to humans through direct contact with infected poultry or contaminated environments. Summary of Transmission Types: - **Direct Contact**: Involves physical contact between the infected person (or animal) and a healthy individual (e.g., sexual contact, kissing, skin-to-skin contact). - **Indirect Contact**: Involves contact with contaminated surfaces, objects, or food and water. - **Droplet Transmission**: Occurs when respiratory droplets from an infected person are transmitted to others (e.g., via coughing or sneezing). - **Airborne (Aerosol)**: Involves inhaling virus particles that remain suspended in the air. - **Vector Transmission**: Transmission via a living organism, such as a mosquito or tick. This list includes common viruses and their respective modes of transmission, which helps in determining appropriate infection control measures.