Origins of the Revolution Flashcards
(142 cards)
1
Q
In what year did Louis XVI become King of France?
A
1774
2
Q
What was the LXVI & Marie Antoinette’s marriage INTENDED to do for France?
A
- Intended to maintain peace between former enemies France and Austria.
- Antoinette was Austrian.
3
Q
When did Marie Antoinette & LXVI marry?
A
1770
4
Q
What did it mean that the King had to rule ‘by the law’?
A
- Uphold Christian morality
- Respect the rights and privileges of his subjects.
5
Q
What is the lettre de cachet an example of the monarch acting as?
A
Despotic ruler
6
Q
What examples are there of the 3 Councils not holding all of France’s powers?
A
- Power held by a small group of influential individuals
- Conducted private business with the monarch
- Included key ministers e.g. Secretaries of State for War, Foreign Affairs, Royal Household
7
Q
Why were the roles of intendants made so difficult?
A
- Allocated too few staff to fulfil duties and were overworked.
- Couldn’t make decisions by themselves as they needed to obtain orders from the King’s council to do so.
8
Q
What were provincial governors’ roles and issues?
A
- Nobles overseeing provinces as king’s representatives
- Maintained order; could summon provincial parlements
- Roles often hereditary, forming local dynasties
- Undermined authority of royal intendants
9
Q
How had officiers in municipal administrations acquired their position?
A
Venality
10
Q
How many venal (bought through venality) offices were there in France by the 18th Century? In what professions?
A
70,000 venal offices comprising the entire judiciary, most lawyers, army officers and other fairly rich professions.
11
Q
Why could the parlements come into conflict with intendants?
A
The parlements had acquired additional powers such as the controlling of guilds and corporations, as well as local governments and finance, which overlapped with the roles of intendants.
12
Q
What was the role of parlements in terms of edicts?
A
- The parlements had to ratify the legality of the King’s edicts with regards to previous legislation and laws.
- Could also table a remonstrance with these edicts, forcing the King to think again about his decrees.
13
Q
What is the process of the use of the lit de justice? What was the risk taken by the monarch when this was used?
A
- The lit de justice is an action which the monarch can take in order to ignore a remonstrance by a Parlement and force the acceptance of an edict.
- Risked acting like a despotic ruler so wasn’t used too often.
14
Q
How many magistrates manned each parlement at a minimum?
A
12 magistrate minimum at the parlements.
15
Q
What was the population in France in the 1780s?
A
27 million
16
Q
How many people were involved in agriculture?
A
21 million
17
Q
What important religious services did the Church offer to society?
A
- The Church ‘provided for the nation’s souls’
- Religious duties or hearing confession, administering masses, hearing confessions and officiating marriages and christenings.
18
Q
What important social services did the Church provide to society?
A
- Controlled education
- Provided care for the sick and elderly.
- Had immense censorship powers
19
Q
What tax was the clergy of the First Estate exempt from?
A
Taille
20
Q
What is an example of the legal and a military benefit of being a clergy member?
A
- The clergy could only be tried in their own Church courts.
- The clergy didn’t have to perform military service or contribute money to the royal troops.
21
Q
What disparities were there between the noblesse d’épée at Versailles and the provincial nobility?
A
- The provincial nobility had become impoverished yet still had status, titles and privileges.
- Nicknamed the ‘hobereaux’.
- As they were distant from Versailles they were prevented from accessing state offices.
- Attempts to maintain noble lifestyle resulted in the accumulation of debt.
22
Q
What social privileges did the nobility have?
A
They could display a coat of arms, could take precedence at public services.
23
Q
What legal privileges did the nobility have?
A
Had the right to be beheaded rather than hanged if guilty of a capital offence
24
Q
What financial privileges did the nobility have?
A
Like the First Estate, were exempt from the taille, had lower rates or exemptions from other direct taxes.
25
Who made up most of the Third Estate and how did they work?
- The peasantry
- Worked under feudal arrangements for a seigneur.
- The majority of pesants worked as farmers, either as subsistence farmers or commercial ones.
26
How did seigneurial arrangements work?
Feudal peasants were able to use the facilities of the estate of a noble to complete their livelihoods (farming, making bread, looking after livestock) in return for payment to the seigneur in the form of money or for the offering of goods produced on the estate.
27
Why did the clergy oppose Calonne’s proposals? Who was this led by?
- The clergy were opposed to the ideas to more heavily tax the church.
- The opposition was led by de Brienne, the Archbishop of Toulouse.
28
How did Calonne anger the notables following their opposition of his proposals? What was wrong with this?
- Calonne published articles attacking the actions of the Notables, accusing them of self interests in their decision making.
- Many notables had actually been influenced by enlightenment ideas, and were open to fairer taxation.
29
Why did Marie Antoinette have such extensive influence over politics? When did she use this in 1787 and previously?
- Marie Antoinette had favourites at court, and manipulated Louis’ weak personality into promoting these favourites into high ranking positions at court.
- Marie Antoinette forced Louis to sack Calonne, Necker and Turgot.
30
What 6 things did Brienne want to implement?
- Extend tolerance to Protestants
- Change the corvée royale into a tax
- Deregulate the grain trade
- Spread education
- Abolish tax farming
- Codify law.
31
Which of Calonne’s proposals did de Brienne attempt to pass? What was the result of this?
- Brienne attempted to pass a modified form of Calonne’s general land tax.
- He failed to do so, as the Assembly of Notables acted in favour of vested interests.
32
What was the attitude of the Assembly of Notables towards taxation reform?
- 'No taxation without representation’ by an Estates General, which would fully scrutinise the taxation system.
- This as they were not deemed representative enough to grant tax reform.
33
Why did de Brienne need the Paris Parlement, what were his proposals, and what happened?
- Brienne asked the Paris Parlement to register his reforms because the Notables had been disbanded by Louis in 1787.
- He asked the Parlement for a land tax, higher stamp duty.
- It was rejected as the Parlement decided it didn’t have sufficient power to rule on this.
34
What was de Brienne’s response to the rejection by the Paris Parlement to pass his economic reforms?
Brienne attempted to pass these reforms through use of the lit de justice, although this was blocked by the Parlement.
35
How did ordinary Parisians display their support for the calling of an Estates-General?
Parisians gathered at Palais Royale a supporter of enlightenment ideas in order to display strong support for the calling of the Estates-General.
36
What was the response of ordinary Parisians to Louis’ decision to banish the Paris Parlement?
Louis banishing the Paris Parlement to Troyes, rioting occurred on the streets of Paris.
37
When did Louis recall the Paris Parlement?
September 1787
38
When did Louis hold a very divisive royal session in 1787? What were the notable outcomes from this?
- November 1787
- Issued a lettre de cachet against duc d'Orléans who was exiled to the French countryside for 5 months
- Forced through the new loans but had to call the EG by 1792 in return for the Paris Parlement's approval
39
How did provincial parlements respond to the May Edicts, and what imprisonment measure did Paris Parlement oppose?
- The Parlements strongly opposed the May Edicts by remonstrating against them
- Paris Parlement campaigned for the ending of imprisonments by lettre de cachet.
40
When did Brienne demand an enlarged don gratuit from the church in order to alleviate financial burdens? What did he actually receive?
- June 1788
- Brienne asked the Parlements for an enlarged don gratuit
- Only received 1/4 of what he originally asked for.
41
What economic action did de Brienne take in August 1788? What knock on effects did this have on France politically and economically?
- Brienne suspended payments from the royal treasury, meaning that it could not request any more loans as it couldn’t pay interest.
- This led to the calling of the Estates-General, as well as France being declared Bankrupt.
42
When did Brienne suspend payments?
August 1788
43
What was Necker's first act in August 1788?
Reverse the unpopular May Edicts & restore the Parlements
44
What was decided about Estates-General procedures and what were the consequences?
- Paris Parlement decided...
- Voting by order would be used
- Each estate would have equal numbers of deputie
- Each Estate debate would be separate
45
When and how did Necker and the King amend Estates-General processes and what was the outcome?
- December 1788
- Admitted that the 3rd Estate should be granted double representation.
- This resulted in double representation in terms of deputies BUT the Third Estate was still granted equal votes.
46
Who were the Society of Thirty (group/individuals)? How did this push France towards revolution?
- A group set up by liberal nobles, some magistrates and clergy (Lafayette, Bishop of Autun included)
- Encouraged the 3rd Estate to fight for rights through publishing of pamphlets and holding of meetings.
47
How much of workers’ incomes was spent on bread due to the poor agricultural situation of 1789?
88%
48
What signs were there of France having a thriving economy in terms of trade and industry?
- 1715-1771 French commerce increased 8x
- Trade with the colonies 4x
- 1715-1771 Industrial production 2x
49
What were the agricultural issues in the 18th-century French economy?
- Economy relied on agriculture and good weather
- Farms were small, divided among heirs
- Not efficient enough to feed growing population
50
What 4 economic issues did France have in terms of trade and industry in the 18th century?
- Lacked a network of canals and rivers to carry goods, and internal trading barriers interrupted trade.
- State imposed barriers
- 25,000 different units of measure used.
- French textile industry in the decline due to a lack of mechanisation compared to Britain.
51
How was Government expenditure financed? (3 methods)
- Government was financed through direct and indirect taxation
- ‘Temporary expedients’ in the form of loans
- Sales of offices (venality) to increase income.
52
What was aides? Who was it paid by? Who collected it?
- Tax paid on luxury goods such as alcohol, oil, textiles, soap and paper.
- Usually paid by the Second Estate as they were more likely to buy these items.
- Collected by the régie générale.
53
How much was French debt by 1764?
2.3 billion Livres in debt
54
Aside from the American Revolutionary Wars, which two other conflicts resulted in France compiling notable debts?
- War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48)
- Seven Years War (1756-63)
- Added 1.3 billion livres to France’s national debt.
55
What measures did Turgot take to improve France’s financial state?
- Cut royal expenses
- Demanded that top government expenses would be reviewed and regulated by him
- Reduced the number of pensions (spearheaded by having to encourage Louis to be more conservative with awarding these gifts).
56
What tax measure did Turgot not succeed in passing, meaning it had to be abandoned?
Turgot aimed to replace indirect taxes with property tax which would impact many in court (land owning nobles).
57
What trading measure did Turgot not succeed in passing, meaning it had to be abandoned? Why? WHEN?
- Aimed to establish free trade in grain in 1774 to prevent price controls and allow the industry to flourish.
- Opposed by men with vested interests,
- Abandoned after 1774‘s poor harvest resulted in the Flour Wars of 1775.
58
When did Turgot register his six edicts?
1776
59
Which of Turgot’s ‘Six Edicts’ were so strongly opposed and what happened?
- 5th Edict: That guild power would be suppressed
- 6th Edict: The abolition of the corvée to be replaced by a landowner tax
- Both remonstrated against by the Paris Parlement.
60
What was the outcome for Turgot and his Six Edicts? WHEN?
- Originally registered by the use of the lit de justice in March 1776
- May 1776: Turgot was ordered to resign, having made enemies such as the Queen. The edicts were subsequently dropped.
60
How did Necker continue Turgot’s economic policy?
Necker continued to reduce royal household expenses and pensions.
61
What new measures did Necker introduce to cut costs around industry and government?
- Appointed salaried officials rather than venal offices to run crown businesses
- Removed the vingtième on industry.
62
How did Necker amend the tax farming industry?
- Reduced the number of tax farmers from 60 to 40
- Replaced those who received direct taxes (venal offices) with salaried officials.
63
How were Necker’s measures to alter tax farming positive and negative?
+ Reduced corruption within the taxation system
- The income from venal offices in France was a key aspect of royal income. A vital source of revenue was lost.
64
What was the Compte Rendu au Roi?
A budget statement displaying the state of French finances.
65
When did Necker produce the Compte Rendu au Roi?
1781
66
How many copies of the Compte Rendu au Roi were sold in its first weeks?
Sold 100,000 copies within weeks of being published.
67
What is a key example of the inaccuracies of the Compte Rendu au Roi?
Necker wrote that France had overseen a period of surplus of 10 million livres, when in actual fact there was a substantial deficit.
68
Why was Necker popular with the French people?
- Attacked vested interests and the privilege of the upper classes.
- Successfully negotiated a conflict without having to raise any additional taxes.
69
Why did Calonne have to create a reform package for French finances?
As a response to France accumulating over 100 million livres in debt in 1786, as well as following hostility from the French Parlement.
70
What did Calonne’s financial reform package include in terms of trade policy and the corvée royale?
- Calonne’s trade policy intended to remove barriers on the trade of grain which was so crucial to feeding the 3rd Estate
- Removing internal customs barriers between French provinces and ending the corvée royale, replacing it with a tax on landowners.
71
What problems were there with the reforms that Calonne intended to introduce?
- Calonne underestimated that introducing a land tax would anger the landowning First and Second Estates.
- It would undermine the hierarchy of the Ancien Regime.
72
Why did Calonne struggle to get these reforms through the Parlements and what solution was decided?
- Struggled to pass these reforms through the Parlements as ministers opposed them.
- To overcome this deadlock, it was agreed that the reforms would be decided on by an Assembly of Notables.
73
What is dogma?
The acceptance of the status quo within society without any questioning or opposition to it.
74
How did Diderot’s work contrast with the beliefs of French society at the time?
Diderot’s attempts to gather all human knowledge in one place opposed the societal hierarchy whereby knowledge was largely kept away from the working classes and reserved only for the nobility.
75
What happened to encyclopédie?
Encyclopédie was later banned after its enlightenment undertones were seen, mainly as a result of the Church’s command.
76
What was mercantilism? Why was it divisive?
- Traditional economic policy of heavy state interference and control over the economy, trade and business.
- Used taxes and monopolised businesses to regulate trade.
- Divisive because it was heavily restrictive.
77
What sort of people would attend Enlightenment gatherings at Freemasonry Lodges?
Freemasonry lodges would be solely attended by upper class men, meaning that their debate would be restricted to the wealthier sectors of society.
77
What sort of people would attend Enlightenment gatherings at Academies?
Only attended by intellectual scholars, who would discuss social and political matters, as well as observe lectures and debates on issues.
78
What sort of people would attend Enlightenment gatherings at salons?
- Both the bourgeoisie and nobles, as well as being heavily visited and often hosted by women.
- Allowed a great accumulation of different groups within society, very inclusive.
79
What was France’s urban literacy rate? Why was this significant for the enlightenment?
- France’s urban literacy rate was around 60% (very high for the time)
- Meaning that pamphlets, poetry and novels were able to spread enlightenment messages throughout the working classes.
80
When was the American Declaration of Independence signed?
1776
81
Which philosophe’s political ideas were implemented upon the creation of the USA? How was this done?
- Montesquieu & the separation of powers within a political system were adopted
- Separate executive (President), legislative (Senate and House of Representatives) and Judicial (independent) branches.
82
Between what years did the American Revolution take place?
1775 - 1783
83
When was France first involved in the American Revolution? How?
- 1776
- French government provided 5 million livres of aid, in the form of ammunition and gunpowder, within one year.
84
When did France first officially show support to the American cause?
1778
85
What Treaty signalled the end of the American Revolutionary Wars? When was this signed?
- The Treaty of Paris 1783.
86
Why was the American Revolution particularly damaging to France’s politics and economy?
- The boost given to enlightenment thinking through the success of the Americans breaking free from an unwanted regime threatened to derail the French political system.
- The economy worsened due to the heavy financial costs of the war.
87
How was Louis XVI’s absolutism limited?
1. He took advice from experienced advisors, giving the select advisors a certain amount of power and authority within the system
2. Still bound to follow a number of laws and customs that had been previously established in France
3. In order to rule, he needed the consent of the nobility
88
Why was Louis XVI’s marriage in 1770 to Marie Antoinette opposed?
Marie Antoinette was the daughter of the Austrian Empress and the French were hostile towards Austria as they were often blamed for the French defeat in the Seven Year’s War (1753-1763)
89
What three councils met in the government? What did they deal with?
- Conseil d’État (Council of State) = dealt with judicial and foreign affairs
- Conseil des Dépêches = received despatches from the King’s officials in provinces and dealt with Church affairs
- Conseil des Finances = dealt with state finances, household costs and economic policy
90
Why did the King appoint intendants? What did they do?
- To act as royal agents, maintaining his rule in the provinces and feeding back information.
- Raise troops, check taxation, coordination of police
91
What was the size of the clergy?
Around 150,000 which was less than 0.5% of the French population
92
How much land did the Church own?
10% of all French land
93
Did the third estate have any privileges?
No – they had to pay direct and indirect taxes and were also liable to conscription and the corvée royal, where they had to perform unpaid labour to service the King’s roads
94
What were the two kinds of nobility?
1. Noblesse de court – nobles located at Versailles, incredibly wealthy, they were the Kings advisors, ministers and ambassadors, holding significant political influence
2. Noblesse de robe – members of the nobility created by the monarch, who would sell legal and administrative offices with hereditary titles
95
What was the size of the second estate?
200,000 – 400,000 members which was around 1% of the population
96
What did parlements have the right to do? How could Louis overturn it?
‘Remonstrance’ - document sent by a parlement to the monarch protesting a royal decree or details of the decree. Overruled by a ‘Lit de justice’ where he could force the acceptance of an edict but this could result in Louis being accused of acting despotically
97
Was Louis XVI an absolute monarch? What did this mean?
Louis was an absolute monarch meaning that, in theory, there were no legal limits to his power and ability to initiate certain directives which can be seen when he was coronated and swore an Oath to God rather than the people of France
98
What was Louis XVI’s character like?
Louis was said to lack his grandfather’s charm as he was weak-willed and indecisive
99
How much debt was France in by end of American Revolution 1783?
3.3 billion livres
100
What royal favours could Louis dispense?
- ‘Gratuites’ = free gifts
- ‘Pensions’ = regular sums of money granted by the King as a sign of ‘favour’
- ‘Sinecures’ = incomes attached to offices that were either honorary or required very little input from the recipient
101
Name all the Enlightenment philosophers (4)
- Montesquieu
- Voltaire
- Rousseau
- Diderot
102
What was Montesquieu’s (1689–1755) separation of powers?
The power and influence of the legislature, executive and judiciary should not exceed one another and be separate.
103
What were the main areas/factors of France that Enlightenment philosophers attacked?
The Church, the monarch’s Divine Right, the privileges of the First and Second Estates.
104
What were the principles of the revolution that were adapted from the Enlightenment?
Liberty, equality and fraternity
105
How were Enlightenment ideas spread?
Salons, academies, Freemasons, coffee houses
106
How are the August Decrees in 1789 an example of Enlightenment principles being promoted?
Abolition of feudalism = more equality
107
What was the Encyclopedia?
An attempt to bring all human knowledge together
108
What did Diderot compile between 1751–1772?
Encyclopedia
109
Define the Enlightenment
An intellectual and cultural movement, which spread across Europe during the 18th century
110
Who was John Locke (1632–1704) and how did he influence the Enlightenment philosophers?
An English political philosopher who had emphasised the need for ‘consent’ in government and also stressed the importance of property rights.
111
How is the creation of the National Assembly (1789) an example of Enlightenment practice?
The Third Estate gained more representation in France considering that they were the ‘nation’ and the majority of the population.
112
What did Enlightenment philosophers criticise about the Church?
- Organised religion and the ‘chain of being’
- Corruption within the Church
- Church’s control over the ‘ignorant masses’
113
What system of government declined during the revolution that links to Enlightenment principles?
Louis XVI’s absolute monarchy and divine right.
114
What made up the bulk of the French economy?
Agriculture
115
How was British competition an issue for France?
France was far less mechanised than Britain. In 1789 Britain had 200 cotton mills to France’s 8
116
What was the Don Gratuit?
A voluntary gift paid by the church every 5 years, amounting to around 2% of its revenue
117
What was the Vingtieme?
A direct tax of 5% of earnings from land, property, commerce and industry, clergy was exempt
118
How did Louis make France’s debt worst?
- Louis’s support of the American Revolutionaries increased France’s debt
- Treaty of Paris 1783 gave France little reward.
- France would face a debt of 3.3 billion livres
119
What were Controller General Turgot’s reforming ideas?
He believed in a more free economic system, he attempted in 1774 to establish free trade in grain
120
What was wrong with Necker’s Compte Rendu?
- Necker’s statement was inaccurate, as he disguised French debt and normal expenditure
- Seen as a breach of royal protocol
121
When and why was Necker forced to resign?
- He and made many enemies at court, including Marie Antoinette, despite his huge popularity with the French people
- 1781
122
What resulted in an economic downturn in 1788?
A hailstorm in July 1788 destroyed French crop, leaving France with its worst harvest in 40 years
123
What was included in Calonne’s reform package in 1786?
A general land tax, and indirect stamp tax and the abolishing of the Corvée Royale
124
When was Necker serving as director general?
- 1771–81
- 1789–90
125
When was Calonne serving as controller general?
1783–1787
126
When was the Assembly of Notables and how many members were there?
- February 1787
- 144 Notables from the First & Second Estate including 7 Princes of the Blood
127
Where were the Paris Parlement banished to and when?
- Troyes
- August 1787
128
What were the Fundamental Laws of the Kingdom? When were they?
- May 1788
- Created by the Parlements
- Intended to force an Estates-General to be called to debate Louis’ changes.
- These laws were supposed to be entrenched, even against change by the King.
129
What did the May Edicts state and when were they registered?
- May 1788
- Intended to diminish the powers of the Parlements
- New plenary courts for law registration appointed by Louis XVI
- Reduction of judges in Paris Parlement
- Work of parlements moved to lower courts
130
What was the name of the event in Grenoble in June 1788 where royal officials were targeted?
Day of Tiles
131
When was France declared bankrupt?
16th August 1788
132
What did the revolt of the nobles May-June 1788 involve?
- Taxes were not paid
- Royal authority collapsed
- Uprisings across France led by nobles
- Riots that attacked intendants and royal officials
133
What was the reaction to the May Edicts?
All night protest in Paris parlement broken up by soldiers
134
What were the main issues regarding the organisation of the Estates General?
- Should estates have equal representation or 3rd Estate have more deputies
- Voting- by-head or voting-by-estate
- Should they debate seperately or together
135
Who wrote ‘What is the Third Estate’, which prompted the politicisation of the Third Estate? When was it written?
- Abbe Sieyes
- January 1789
136
What factors led to the Third Estate becoming more politicised?
- Influence of the American Wars of independence
- Activities of the Societe des trente
- Publication of What is the Third Estate
- 1788 poor harvest
- Elections and cahiers for the EG
137
What were the cahiers de doleances? How many were there?
- Lists of grievances compiled by each estate for the Estates General
- 40,000 produced
- Started to be drawn up in Spring of 1789
138
What event took place in April 1789?
Reveillon riots (wallpaper factory workers) due to poor economic situation and rumours of wage cutes. Troops called in after 2 days.
139
What was the Paris Parlement’s reaction to Brienne’s reform proposal?
Did not approve of taxation changes, refused to accept Brienne’s lit de justice
140
When did the Estates General open?
5th May 1789
