P2 Research Biases

Question 1

Fact

Answer 1

Observation

An objective statement, usually based on direct observation, that reasonable observers agree is true.

(Particular patterns of behavior)

Question 2

Theory

Answer 2

Idea of conceptual model designed to explain existing facts and make predictions about new facts that might be discovered

Question 3

Hypothesis

Answer 3

Any prediction about new facts that are/can be made from a theory

Question 4

Lessons of Science

Answer 4

1. Value of Skepticism
   - aim to disprove rather than probe
   - occum’s razor
2. Value of Careful Observation under Controlled Conditions
3. Problem of Observer-Expectancy Effects
   - observers communicate how they expect subjects to respond to them, who then intentionally or not, respond how it is expect d of them

Question 5

Experiments

Answer 5

Systematic manipulation of independent variable (cause) to look for changes in dependent variable (effect) while all other variables are constant

Question 6

Within-Subject Experiments

Answer 6

Subject(s) tested in each condition of independent variable

Question 7

Between-Group Experiments

Answer 7

Different groups of subjects are each randomly assigned to condition of an independent variable different from those of other groups

Question 8

Correlation Study

Answer 8

Variables are not manipulated, but observation or measurement is made on two or more existing variables to find relationship between them.

• cause and effect cannot be determined
• coronation does not equal causation
• cannot be sure of effects of other possible variables
• cannot entirely determine which variable came first

Question 9

Descriptive Study

Answer 9

Describe behavior of some or more individual without assessing relationship between variables

Simply explain/describe rather than analyse cause and effect

Question 10

Laboratory Study

Answer 10

Any study where subjects are brought to specific areas where researcher has control over the experiences the subjects have at that time

Question 11

Field Study

Answer 11

Ant study conducted in a setting where researcher does not have control over subject experience

Question 12

Self-Reported Methods

Answer 12

Subjects asked to rate or describe own behavior or mental state in some way

Introspective: personal observations of thoughts, perspectives, and feelings

Question 13

Observational Methods

Answer 13

All precedures where researchers observe and record behavior rather than relying on subject self reports

Question 14

Tests

Answer 14

Deliberately present problems

Question 15

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 15

No interference, with Subjects either being aware of observation or not

Question 16

Hawthorne Effect

Answer 16

When subjects are aware they are being observed and belief of receiving special treatment and the results of their behaviour reflect this, rather than the actual independent variable being tested

Question 17

Habitation

Answer 17

Decline in response to something when stimulus is repeatedly or continuously present

Question 18

Descriptive Statistics

Answer 18

Describing a set of sources

Mean: adding all scores and dividing my total number of scores
- preferred when scores roughly distributed evenly

Median: the centre score (if even, number between two middle scores)
- prefered when scores highly skewed

Question 19

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 19

Calculated by formula which produces results ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 which I dictates direction of correlation (positive or negative)

Question 20

Positive Correlation

Answer 20

Increase in one variable coincides with increase of other variable

+1.00

Question 21

Negative Correlation

Answer 21

Increase in one variable coincides with decrease in other

-1.00

Question 22

Strength of Correlation

Answer 22

How strong correlation is (the value with the ± removed)

Correlation closer to 0 means variables are statistically unrelated

Question 23

Inferential Statistics

Answer 23

Any data collection in a research study always has some degree of variability that can be a result of change due to uncontrollable random variables

Question 24

Probability (p)

Answer 24

When comparing 2 means or correlation coefficients, p is the probability that they (the results) would occur by chance (equal to or larger than recorded result) in a larger population

Question 25

Statistically Significant

Answer 25

Value of p is less then 5% (0.05) Probability is small that it would occur my chance alone

Question 26

Sampling Bias

Answer 26

When members of a particular group are different from another in some systematic way, or different from larger population researcher is interested in describing. Not representitive of what is being described

Question 27

Sampling Bias

Answer 27

When members of a particular group are different from another in some systematic way, or different from larger population researcher is interested in describing. Not representitive of what is being described

Question 28

Replicability

Answer 28

Reliable to degree which similar results are gained each time with a particular subject under particular set of conditions

Question 29

Interobserver Reliability

Answer 29

Same behavior is seen by one observer is seen by another

Question 30

Operational Definition

Answer 30

Specifying exactly what constitutes example of dependent measured

Question 31

Face Validity

Answer 31

Common sense tells us the measurement procedure (test) used to assess a specific characteristic is a logical method to do so (A finger can't measure intelligence)

Question 32

Observer-Expecfancy Effect

Answer 32

Researcher who desires or expect specific response unintentionally communicates this to subject, influencing their behaviour

Question 33

Subject-Expectancy Effects

Answer 33

Expectancy in how they believe they should r spins influence the actual results

Question 34

Double-Blind Experiment

Answer 34

Both observer and subject are kept blind Observer: unaware of hypothesis or which subjects recieved which treatment Subject: placebo or fake treatment

Question 35

Publically Verifiable Knowledge

Answer 35

Findings presented to scientific community in such a way they can be replicated, criticised, or extend by anyone in community

Question 36

Peer Review

Answer 36

Paper submitted to a journal is critiqued by several scientists who submit criticisms to editor (usually scientist with extensive history in area) who decides if weight of opinions warrants publication

Question 37

The Place of Case Studies

Answer 37

Beneficial in early stages of scientific investigation, not to prove anything definitively but to suggest areas for future investigation as it lacks compatible evidence to rule out alternative explanations

Question 38

Goal of Experimentation

Answer 38

Events are structured so that support for one explanation simulatiously disconfirms others (Isolating variables)

Question 39

Placebo Effect

Answer 39

Tendency for people to report treatment has helped them regardless of it actually have any therapeutic elements

Question 40

Spontaneous Remission

Answer 40

Recovery rate due to simple passage of time

Question 41

Vividness Effect

Answer 41

When faced with a problem-solving or decision-making decision people pull information from memory that seems most relevant to the situation - most memorable things are most easily accessible - most accessable things are most vivid Nothing is more vivid or compelling than a sincere personal testimony

Question 42

Burnum Effect

Answer 42

Most people endorse generalized personality summaries as accurate and specific to them

Question 43

Testimonials

Answer 43

Useless because; - isolated phenomenon: no control of outside variables and no reliable correlation of cause and effect - placebo effect: no matter actual effect of treatment there will always be testimony

Question 44

Third-Variable Problem

Answer 44

Correlation between 2 variables may not indicate direct casual relationship but arise because both related to a third variable that has not been measured (spurious Relationship)

Question 45

Directionality Problem

Answer 45

Before concluding that A causes B, must recognize possibility that B causes A