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PSIO202 > Practical 3 - Digestive > Flashcards

Practical 3 - Digestive Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 5 functions of the digestive system?

A

ingestion, digestion, absorption, compaction, and defecation

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2
Q

What is the pathway of digestion?

A

mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver/gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, rectum/anus

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3
Q

What are the GI tract organs?

A

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

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4
Q

What are the accessory organs?

A

teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas

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5
Q

What are the three salivary glands, and where are they located?

A

parotid - side of cheek
sublingual - under the tongue
submandibular - below the mandible

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6
Q

Define absorption

A

uptake of a substance

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7
Q

Define desiccation

A

removing water

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8
Q

Define secretion

A

release of a substance

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9
Q

Define mechanical digestion

A

breakdown of chunks of food into smaller bits of the same food (no molecular alteration)

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10
Q

Define chemical digestion

A

breakdown of macronutrients by enzymes or acid into smaller molecules

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11
Q

Define ingestion

A

consumption via mouth

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12
Q

Define mastication

A

chewing

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13
Q

Define deglutition

A

swallowing

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14
Q

Define propulsion

A

pushing or moving forward

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15
Q

Define peristalsis

A

waves of smooth muscle contraction that causes propulsion

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16
Q

Define defecation

A

expelling feces (anything that is not broken down or absorbed) from the GI tract

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17
Q

Define churning

A

method of mechanical breakdown

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18
Q

Define segmentation

A

mechanical breakdown in intestines, breaking food into segments as well as mixing and moving in both directions

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19
Q

Define bolus

A

rounded mushy lump of food (esophagus)

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20
Q

Define chyme

A

liquified food (stomach and small intestines)

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21
Q

Where is feces found?

A

the colon (large intestine)

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22
Q

How does chyme become mixed together in the small intestine?

A

peristalsis + segmentation

food/chyme is segmented, peristalsis pushes it forward, then it is segmented again, etc…
each wave of peristalsis has a new set of segments that continually mix the food more and more

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23
Q

What are the layers of the digestive tract from superficial to deep (lumen outwards)? Practice with model photos.

A

mucosa
-epithelium
-lamina propria
-muscularis mucosae
submucosa
muscularis externa
-inner circular
-outer longitudinal
serosa (or adventitia)

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24
Q

What does the myenteric plexus do? Where is it located?

A

controls peristalsis and other contraction of the muscularis externa

located in between the layers of the muscularis externa (outside the inner circular layer, but inside the outer longitudinal layer)

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25
Q

What does the submucosal plexus do? Where is it located?

A

controls the muscularis mucosae and glandular secretions of the mucosa.

located just outside of the muscularis mucosae of the mucosa, right on top of the submucosa

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26
Q

Explain the visceral and parietal peritoneum, as well as retroperitoneal organs (and examples).

A

parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal cavity, while visceral covers the abdominal organs

retroperitoneal organs lie outside and posterior to the peritoneum, and include the duodenum, part of the pancreas, and portions of the large intestine

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27
Q

What are the 5 peritoneal folds?

A

mesentery, mesocolon, falciform ligament, greater omentum, and lesser omentum

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28
Q

Where is the mesentery/what does it do? How can it be seen?

A

holds the small intestine to the posterior abdominal wall

look at the back of the model, it is the pale pink sheet that connects all of the small intestines to the back

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29
Q

Where is the mesocolon/what does it do? How can it be seen?

A

holds the large intestine to the posterior abdominal wall

seen by looking at the top of the model, connects large intestine to posterior wall (looks like the pancreas on the model)

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30
Q

Where is the falciform ligament/what does it do? How can it be seen?

A

binds the liver to the anterior abdominal wall

separates the left and right lobe of the liver

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31
Q

Where is the greater omentum/what does it do?

A

layer of fat that loosely covers the transverse colon and small intestine

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32
Q

Where is the lesser omentum/what does it do?

A

connects medial curve of the stomach with the liver

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33
Q

What does the upper esophageal sphincter do?

A

regulate swallowing reflex and keeps excess air out of the esophagus when not in use

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34
Q

What does the lower esophageal sphincter do?

A

prevents reflex of contents from the stomach

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35
Q

Name the three muscles of the stomach/layers of the muscularis externa from superficial to deep. What is their collective role?

What additional roles does the stomach have?
What is another vital feature of the stomach?

A

inner oblique muscle
middle circular muscle
outer longitudinal muscle

churn the food in multiple directions

stomach also secretes acid, enzymes, and mucus to liquify the food into chyme
Rugae of mucosa - look wrinkly, allow for expansion, and increase surface area

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36
Q

What structures enter and exit the stomach? What are the other regions of the stomach?

A

esophagus enters, duodenum exits

cardia, fundus, body, and pyloric antrum + canal

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37
Q

What is the role of the cardia region of the stomach?

A

interface between the esophagus and stomach (the “entry”)

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38
Q

What is the role of the fundus of the stomach?

A

holds undigested food and gases released during digestion

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39
Q

What is the role of the body of the stomach?

A

main portion of the stomach where most churning and digestion takes place

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40
Q

What is the role of the pyloric antrum+canal of the stomach?

A

holds the broken down food until it is ready to release into the small intestine (duodenum)`

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41
Q

What does the pyloric sphincter do?

A

keeps contents in the stomach until liquified and regulate a slow release of chyme

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42
Q

What are the 5 types of cells in gastric glands?

What do they each produce?

A

mucous cells, regenerative stem cells, parietal cells, chief cells, and enteroendocrine cells (G cells)

mucous cells - mucous
parietal cells - HCl
chief cells - pepsinogen and gastric lipase
enteroendocrine - gastrin into the blood stream

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43
Q

Where does most absorption of fluid and nutrients occur?

A

small intestine

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44
Q

What are the functions of the small intestine?

A

secretion, mixing, propulsion, segmentation, chemical and mechanical digestion

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45
Q

What are the three regions of the small intestine?

A

duodenum, jejunum, and ileum

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46
Q

What does the ileal papilla do? What is another name for it?

A

valve separating the small from the large intestine, keeps bacteria in the large intestine from invading the small intestine
aka the ileocecal sphincter

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47
Q

What are circular folds? Can you see them?

A

They are folds of mucosa and submucosa that increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients. They are visible to the naked eye.

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48
Q

What three things give the small intestine more surface area?

A

plicae circularis (circular folds), villi, and microvilli

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49
Q

What is the name for a lymph vessel that runs through a villus?

A

lacteal

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50
Q

What are the roles of the large intestine?
What are the regions?

A

absorb remaining water (desiccaton) and segments bolus

cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus

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51
Q

How long does it take for a meal to become feces?
What percent of feces is bacteria?

A

36-48 hours

30% bacteria

52
Q

What type of tissue composes the internal and external anal sphincters?
Are they voluntary or involuntary?

A

internal anal sphincter: smooth muscle, involuntary

external anal sphincter: skeletal muscle, regulates movement of feces, voluntary

53
Q

Compare and contrast histology slides of stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. What are some key differences?

A

stomach - flat tops, gastric pits/glands, puffy parietal cells

small intestine - long squiggly villi, intestinal crypts

large intestine - very flat tops, intestinal glands, lots of goblet cells

54
Q

What are the names of the tissue that connects inferior and superior lips to the gums?

A

inferior and superior labial frenulum

55
Q

What is the proper name for the gums?

A

gingivae

56
Q

What are the 4 types of teeth and their function?

A

molars - grind
premolars - crush/grind
canines - tear/shred
incisors - cut

57
Q

Describe the structures of the tooth and what they do.

A

enamel
dentin
pulp cavity
cementum - attach the root to the periodontal ligament
periodontal ligament - anchor the tooth to the underlying bone
apical foramen - opening where blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter a tooth

58
Q

What are the two main types of salivary glands and their location/function?

A

intrinsic salivary glands (minor) - scattered throughout the mouth, always producing saliva

extrinsic salivary glands (major) - 3 pairs of distinct glands located outside the oral mucosa

59
Q

What cells can be recognized in the histology of a salivary gland?

A

duct cells - bright white blobs (form ducts leading to the oral cavity)

secretory cells
- serous/acini cells : look like a blackberry (watery fluid and enzymes)
- mucous cells : groups of pale blobs (mucus)

59
Q

Of the three extrinsic salivary glands, which has the most duct cells?

A

sublingual

60
Q

What composes the hepatic triad?

A

branch of the hepatic portal vein, branch of the hepatic artery, and a bile ductile

61
Q

What are the tiny tubes that are all over a liver lobule?

A

bile canaliculi

62
Q

What connects the central vein to the edges of the liver lobule?

A

hepatic sinusoid

63
Q

What are the cells that make up the majority of a liver lobule, and what do they do?

A

hepatocytes, make bile

64
Q

What is the difference in function between the liver and gallbladder?

A

liver - produce bile
gallbladder - store and concentrate bile

65
Q

What merges into the common hepatic duct?

A

right hepatic duct and left hepatic duct

66
Q

What merges into the common bile duct?

A

common hepatic duct and cystic duct

67
Q

What merges at the hepatopancreatic ampulla?

A

common bile duct and pancreatic duct

68
Q

Bile dumps into the duodenum through the…

A

duodenal papilla/hepatopancreatic sphincter

69
Q

What is liver cirrhosis, and what are the major results of this disease?

A

scarring of the liver due to long term liver damage

prevents the liver from working properly, leads to end-stage liver disease and liver failure

70
Q

What are the pathophysiological steps of liver cirrhosis?

A

previous conditions cause inflammation and death of cells, cell repair leads to a build-up of scar tissue and nodules of regenerating cells, scar tissue obstructs the hepatic circulation and bile passages

71
Q

What are the two main causes/risk factors of liver cirrhosis?

A

fatty liver disease and hepatitis infection

72
Q

How does fatty liver disease cause liver cirrhosis?
general and 2 types

A

fat accumulation due to nonalcoholic or alcoholic fatty liver disease
NAFLD - range of liver conditions can cause nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and cirrhosis
alcohol abuse (AFLD)

73
Q

What ways can someone get Hep C?

A

infection spreads through the blood, can be introduced by unprotected sex, sharing needles/razors/toothbrushes, or infected blood transfusions

74
Q

What are the symptoms of liver cirrhosis?

A

extreme fatigue and weakness, nausea, weight loss, jaundice, abdominal pain, spider-like blood vessels, vomiting blood, swelling of extremities, bloody stool, itchy skin, and easy bleeding/bruising

75
Q

What are the treatments for liver cirrhosis?

A

manage symptoms and slow progression

limit alcohol consumption (even for NAFLD, which is sped up by alcohol)
lose weight if needed
discontinue liver stressing medications
treat initial condition (hepatitis, antiviral meds)
liver transplant if sever (and rarely)

76
Q

What is the prevalence of liver cirrhosis?

A

5th-7th leading cause of death in the US ages 25-60
0.27% is affected
10-20% of heavy drinkers develop cirrhosis
15-30% of people with Hep C will develop cirrhosis
NAFLD is most common form of chronic liver disease in the US, 5-12% progress into cirrhosis

77
Q

Is liver cirrhosis reverseable?

A

No

78
Q

What ar ethe functions of the pancreas?

A

secrete digestive enzymes and bicarbonate into the duodenum through the duodenal papilla

79
Q

What cells of the pancreas secrete exocrine products?

A

acini cells

80
Q

In the pancreas, 1 —— is surrounded by many ——–

A

pancreatic islet
exocrine/acini cells

81
Q

What do the alpha and beta cells of the pancreatic islet do?

A

alpha - glucagon secretion
beta - insulin secretion

82
Q

What is an enzyme, and how do they work?

A

they are a protein that has a specific binding site and works at a particular temperature and pH to carry out chemical reactions more quickly

83
Q

What is the pH in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine?

A

mouth and small intestine = 7
stomach = 2

84
Q

What temperature and pH do most enzymes work best at?

A

37C and pH=7

85
Q

Does pH or temperature affect enzyme action in digestion more?

A

pH affects it more than the temperature

86
Q

What are other terms for starch? What do the molecules look like? How are starches stored in humans and plants?

A

also called polysaccharides and carbohydrates
they are glucose molecules bent into rings and linked together
stored as glycogen in the liver in humans, but as cellulose in plants

87
Q

What is a disaccharide, and what are three examples?

A

two sugar molecules bonded together
sucrose, lactose, maltose

88
Q

What is sucrose? Where is it found?

A

glucose and fructose
found in sugarcane

89
Q

What is lactose? Where is it found?

A

glucose and galactose
found in yogurt

90
Q

What is maltose? Where is it found?

A

2 glucose
found in wheat

91
Q

What is a monosaccharide, and what are three examples?

A

sugar molecules small enough to absorb in the GI tract
glucose, fructose, and galactose

92
Q

What enzyme from the salivary glands breaks down carbohydrates?
What is the substrate, product, and reaction location?

A

salivary amylase
polysaccharides —> smaller polysaccharides
mouth

93
Q

What enzyme from the pancreas breaks down carbohydrates?
What is the substrate, product, and reaction location?

A

pancreatic amylase
smaller polysaccharides —> di/monosaccharides
small intestine

94
Q

What enzymes in the brush border break down carbohydrates?
What is the substrate, product, and reaction location for each?

A

a-dextrinase, sucrase, lactase, and maltase
all in the small intestine
a dextrinase: a dextrins to monosaccharides
sucrase: sucrose to glucose and fructose
lactase: lactose to glucose and galactose
maltase: maltose to 2 glucose

95
Q

What enzyme digests proteins in the stomach?
Where is it produced, what is the substrate and product?

A

pepsin
produced by chief cells
polypeptides —> smaller polypeptides

96
Q

What enzymes digest proteins in the small intestine? Where are they produced, and what are their substrates and products?

A

trypsin/chymotrypsin: pancreas, breaks small polypeptides into dipeptides and amino acids
aminopeptidase: brush border, breaks small polypeptides into amino acids
dipeptidase: brush border, breaks dipeptides into amino acids

97
Q

What enzymes digest lipids? Where are they produced, where do they react, and what is their substrate and product?

A

lingual lipase, gastric lipase, and pancreatic lipase all break lipids into glycerol + fatty acids
lingual is released from salivary glands and reacts in stomach
gastric is released from chief cells and reacts in stomach
pancreatic is produced in the pancreas and reacts in the small intestine

98
Q

What are lingual papillae? What are the four kinds?

A

structures that contain taste buds
vallate (v shape, big), fungigorm (mushroom, all over), foliate (rectangle, sides), and filiform (cone, just texture)

99
Q

Describe the vallate papillae.

A

largest taste bud, form a V on the posterior surface of the tongue

100
Q

Describe the fungiform papillae.

A

named for their mushroom shape, found all over the tongue

101
Q

Describe the foliate papillae.

A

found on the sides of the tongue

102
Q

Describe the filiform papillae.

A

most numerous, small and cone-shaped, sense texture but do not contain taste buds

103
Q

Describe the structure of a taste bud.

A

first-order taste neurons on the bottom, layer of basal cells, clustered gustatory receptor cells, taste pore on top with gustatory microvilli

104
Q

What are the 5 taste sensations?

A

sweet, salty, umami, sour, and bitter

105
Q

What is the role of saliva in gustation?

A

saliva breaks things down into smaller molecules (like glucose and fructose) that can be detected by receptors on the tongue

106
Q

What is the difference in response strength between olfactory and gustatory neurons?

A

olfactory respond thousand of times more strongly than gustatory do

107
Q

Describe the pathway of olfaction.

A

odorants dissolve in mucus, binds to olfactory receptors/sensory neurons, carried to olfactory bulb

108
Q

What is a protein? What is a polypeptide?

A

macromolecule with one or more polypeptides (polypeptides are strings of amino acids)

109
Q

Protein enzymes break polypeptides into…

A

dipeptides or amino acids

110
Q

What are lipids? Lipid enzymes break lipids into…

A

nonpolar macromolecules consisting of one or more fatty acids bound to a glycerol backbone
break lipids into glycerol and fatty acids

111
Q

What is the role of bile? Describe the pathway of bile action.

A

emulsifies lipids by mechanically breaking the oil into small droplets

large lipid droplet enters the intestine
bile emulsifies the drop into smaller particles
lipase (from the pancreas) breaks down the fat into fatty acids and monoglycerides
those molecules are absorbed and reform triglyceride in the villi
triglycerides combine with cholesterol, protein and phospholipids to form chylomicrons which enter the lacteal and travel away in the lymph

112
Q

What is the pathophysiology of celiac disease?

A

immune reaction to gluten that triggers T cell immune responses in the small intestine
causes damage and atrophy to the intestinal lining/villi, which in turn decreases surface area and absorption of nutrients

113
Q

What are the digestive syptoms of celiac disease?
Non-digestive symptoms?

A

digestive:
diarrhea, fatigue, weight loss, bloating and has, abdominal pain, nausea/vomiting, constipation, lactose intolerance
non digestive:
anemia, loss of bone density, itchy or blister skin rash, mouth ulcers, and joint pain

114
Q

What can celiac disease lead to if not treated?

A

heart disease, infertility, liver failure, ADHD, small intestine cancer, other autoimmune disorders
Also affects growth/development in children due to malabsorption

115
Q

What are the treatments for celiac disease?

A

no known cure
follow a strict gluten-free diet, vitamin and mineral supplements for vitamin deficiency, medical to control intestinal inflammation, medication to treat dermatitis herpetiformis
no treatments for refractory cell disease

116
Q

What is refractory celiac disease?

A

small intestine wont heal itself

117
Q

What medications can control intestinal inflammation?

A

steroids, azathioprine, and budesonide

118
Q

What medications treat dermatitis herpetiformis?

A

dapsone, sulphapyridine

119
Q

What is the prevalence of celiac disease?

A

0.7-1.4% of the population
most in US, Europe, and Australia (3-13 per 1000)
females affected at 2x the rate
incidence increasing 7.5% per year over the past decades

120
Q

What is the pathophysiology of lactose intolerance?

A

lactase is not produced in high enough quantity (lactase is what breaks down lactose) so they are unable to digest lactose in milk and break down the constituents
lactose gets to the colon and interacts with normal bacteria causing gas and other symptoms

121
Q

What are the three causes of lactose intolerance?

A

primary - start life producing lactase but falls off sharply at some point (compared to others, who slowly lose lactase production as they age)
secondary - illness/injury involving the small intestine
congenital - autosomal recessive disorder, born without lactase and do not develop lactase producing cells

122
Q

What are the symptoms of lactose intolerance?

A

symptoms start 30 min-2 hours after food/drink
severity depends on how much lactose is ingested and how much lactase is present
loose stool, diarrhea, abdominal bloating, cramps, pain, flatulence, nausea

123
Q

What are the treatments for lactose intolerance?

A

no known treatment to produce lactase
eat low lactose diet (limit milk and dairy, eat dairy with naturally lower or reduced lactose, use lactase enzyme tablets to help break down lactose)
treat the underlying conditions (for secondary type)

124
Q

What is the prevalence of lactose intolerance?

A

high levels at birth and decrease with age
nonhuman mammals lose ability to digest lactose during adulthood
Asia, South American, and African areas have a higher propensity for lactase deficiency
Northern European descent and Northwestern Indian subcontinent are more likely to retain ability to absorb lactose as adults

PSIO202 (27 decks)

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