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PSIO202 > PSIO202 Exam 3 Endocrine > Flashcards

PSIO202 Exam 3 Endocrine Flashcards

1
Q

What are the similarities between the nervous and endocrine system?

A

control and coordinate body activities, chemical messengers for intercellular communication

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2
Q

What are the three major differences between nervous and endocrine systems?

A

nature of the message (actional potentials and neurotransmitters vs. hormones)
message speed (nervous is milliseconds to seconds, endocrine is seconds to minutes)
message duration (nervous also only lasts milliseconds to seconds, endocrine lasts days to weeks)

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3
Q

Nervous system and endocrine system release different messages, but they can affect the same…

A

target cells

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4
Q

What are the 5 endocrine glands?

A

pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal

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5
Q

What are other organs and tissues with endocrine cells?

A

hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries and testes, lots of others (kidneys, renal, liver, stomach, SI, heart, skin, adipose tissue)

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6
Q

The endocrine system contains any tissue or organ that…….

A

contains endocrine cells

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7
Q

What are exocrine vs endocrine glands? Are exocrine included in the endocrine system?

A

exocrine - secrete products into ducts and lumens or to the outer surface of the body (including digestion, reproduction, etc.)
**not included in endocrine system
endocrine - secrete products into interstitial fluid (which diffuses into the blood) or directly into the blood

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8
Q

What are the other terms for hormones, and what is the definition?

A

chemical messengers (or mediator molecules)
that are released in one part of the body and regulate activity in other parts of the body

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9
Q

Describe local vs. circulating, and autocrine vs. paracrine vs. endocrine

A

local - effect cells nearby (autocrine is when the hormone binds to receptors on itself, and paracrine is when they bind to cells very close)
circulating - endocrine is when the hormones travel in the blood to far away cells

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10
Q

Can local hormones can act as autocrine and paracrine at the same time?

A

yes

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11
Q

What are the two main types of circulating hormones?

A

water soluble and lipid soluble

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12
Q

Since hormones have to bind to receptors to cause an effect, what are the three ways the effect can be amplified?

A

increase the concentration of the hormone
increase the number of receptors
increase the affinity of the hormone for the receptor

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13
Q

What is the difference in how lipid soluble and water soluble hormones are transported?

A

lipid soluble - bound to transport proteins for transport in body fluids
water soluble - freely dissolved in body fluids

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14
Q

What are the two types of lipid soluble hormones?

A

steroid hormones
thyroid hormones

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15
Q

What are steroid hormones? What are some examples?

A

lipids soluble hormones that are derived from cholesterol
cortisol, testosterone, estrogens, progesterone, aldosterone

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16
Q

What are thyroid hormones? What are some examples?

A

lipid soluble hormones that are composed of a tyrosine ring with attached iodines
T3 or T4

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17
Q

Lipid soluble hormones are important because they can withstand….

A

digestion

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18
Q

What are the two types of water soluble hormones?

A

peptide and protein hormones
biogenic amines

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19
Q

What are peptide and protein hormones? What are some examples?

A

water soluble hormones that are composed of chains of amino acids
they are hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones
ADH, oxytocin, hGH, TSH, ACTH, insulin, glucagon, EPO

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20
Q

What are biogenic amines? What are some examples?

A

water soluble hormones that are small and composed of modified amino acids
catecholamines (aka neurotransmitters)- NE, epi, dopamine
serotonin, melatonin, histamine

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21
Q

Hormones are released from glands in response to —— or ——- changes.

A

internal or external

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22
Q

Hormones produce ——-reaching effects on —– target tissues.

A

wide-reaching effects on multiple target tissues

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23
Q

What are some general ways that hormones regulate organ system function?

A

metabolic pathways, biological clock, contraction of cardiac and smooth muscle, glandular secretion, immune functions, growth and development, reproduction (basically everything)

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24
Q

What is the shape of a time graph for a negative feedback loop?

A

wave up and down, up and down, over and over

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25
Q

Hormones will only affect target cells with specific membrane or intracellular proteins called ——- ———.
All hormones have at least (#) target cell.

A

hormone receptors
1

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26
Q

How do water and lipid soluble hormones leave the secretory cell?
How do water and lipid soluble hormones travel?
Where are the receptors for water and lipid soluble hormones?

A

water - exocytosis ; lipid - diffusion
water - freely ; lipid - bound to transport protein
water - cell membrane ; lipid - inside cell

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27
Q

What are 4 ways that a cell can respond to a hormone binding to a receptor?

A

synthesis of new molecules, alteration of existing molecules, change in membrane permeability, altered rates of reaction

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28
Q

Different target cells can respond to the same hormone…

A

in different ways

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29
Q

Describe steroid hormone action from secretion to effect. Is it fast or slow?

A

leave the secretory cells by diffusion, require transport protein, diffuse freely into the target cell, intracellular receptor, and change the specific gene expression
slow

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30
Q

Describe peptide hormone action from secretion to effect. Is it fast or slow?

A

leave the secretory cell by exocytosis, no transport protein, bind to cell surface receptor, evoke changes in existing proteins via second messengers (often alter phosphorylation state of proteins)
fast

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31
Q

A “first messenger” water soluble hormone binding to a receptor will (increase and/or decrease) intracellular second messenger.

A

can increase or decrease the second messenger

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32
Q

Is the second messenger that a hormone causes always the same?

A

no, it can be different for different target cells

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33
Q

What do second messengers initiate?

A

a series of biochemical reactions (usually involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation) in the target cell

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34
Q

The hypothalamus receives input from the…

A

cortex, thalamus, limbic system and internal organs

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35
Q

The hypothalamus links the ——- and ——– environment and the ——– system.

A

external internal environment
endocrine system

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36
Q

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland together control almost all aspects of…

A

growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis

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37
Q

How are the anterior and posterior pituitary connected to the hypothalamus?

A

anterior - connected by blood supply but not by the infundibulum
posterior - not connected by blood but is connected by the infundibulum

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38
Q

What type of tissue is int he anterior and posterior pituitary?

A

anterior - glandular
posterior - nervous

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39
Q

What supplies the posterior pituitary with blood, and what drains it? What connects those vessels?

A

the inferior hypophyseal artery supplies it, the posterior hypophyseal veins drain it, and they are connected by the capillary plexus of the infundibular process

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40
Q

What is the blood flow path for the anterior pituitary?

A

blood comes in through the superior hypophyseal artery, enters the primary plexus of the hypophyseal portal system, then moves down to the anterior pituitary via the hypophyseal portal veins, goes through the secondary plexus of the hypophyseal portal system, and then drains through the anterior hypophyseal veins

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41
Q

What are the two main ways the hypothalamus can control the pituitary?

A

anterior - release releasing or inhibiting hormones that travel through the blood to the anterior pit.

posterior - hypothalamus makes hormones that are sent to the posterior pit. to be released into circulation

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42
Q

After the hypothalamus releases hormones which act on the anterior pituitary, what does the anterior pituitary do?

A

5 types of anterior pituitary cells can release more/less of 7 tropic hormones into the blood

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43
Q

What occurs at both capillary plexus that link the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary?

A

primary - releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus enter the blood to travel to the ant. pit.

secondary - those releasing and inhibiting hormones reach the cells in the ant. pit. causing them to release more/less hormones

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44
Q

What are the 5 cells types in the anterior pituitary?

A

somatotrophs, thyrotrophs, lactotrophs, gonadotrophs, and corticotrophs

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45
Q

What hormone is released by somatotrophs, and what hormones stimulate the release/inhibition?

A

hGH

stimulated by GHRH
inhibited by GHIH

46
Q

What hormone is released by thyrotrophs, and what hormones stimulate the release/inhibition?

A

TSH

stimulated by TRH
inhibited by GHIH

47
Q

What hormone is released by lactotrophs, and what hormones stimulate the release/inhibition?

A

PRL

stimulated by PRH
inhibited by PIH (dopamine)

48
Q

What hormone is released by gonadotrophs, and what hormones stimulate the release/inhibition?

A

FSH and LH

stimulated by GnRH

49
Q

What hormone is released by corticotrophs, and what hormones stimulate the release/inhibition?

A

ACTH and MSH

stimulated by CRH
only MSH are inhibited by PIH (dopamine)

50
Q

What does an increase in hGH cause?
How do IGFs help growth?

A

synthesis of insulin like growth factors (IGFs), which:
- increases cell growth and differentiation by increasing the uptake of amino acids and synthesis of proteins
- stimulate lipolysis of adipose tissue
- decrease glucose use so that there is more glucose to supply the brain

51
Q

What are the target tissues of hGH/somatotrophs?

A

liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage, and bone

52
Q

What are the stimuli for GHRH release?

A

hypoglycemia, deep sleep, decreased fatty acids and increased amino acids in the blood, increased sympathetic stimulation

53
Q

What are the stimuli for GHIH release?

A

hyperglycemia, REM sleep, increased fatty acids and decreased amino acids, obesity, low thyroid hormones, and high hGH

54
Q

What are the target tissues/effects of FSH?

A

women - stimulate secretion of estrogen and formation of follicles in the ovary
men - stimulate sperm production in the testes

55
Q

What are the target tissues/effects of LH?

A

women - secretion of estrogen and progesterone, ovulation, formation of corpus luteum
men - testosterone

56
Q

What inhibits LH production?

A

the testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone that are released when LH is stimulated.

57
Q

What are the target tissues/effects of PRL?
Besides PRH, what else can increase PRL?

A

target mammary gladns for breast milk production

suckling reduces inhibition of PRL by PIH

58
Q

What are the target tissues/effects of MSH?

A

increases skin pigmentation in the skin

59
Q

What are the target tissues/effects of ACTH?

A

stimulates the release of glucocorticosteroids (like cortisol) from the adrenal cortex

60
Q

What inhibits the corticotrophs from releasing ACTH?

A

cortisol that is produced from the adrenal glands when stimulated by ACTH

61
Q

What are the target tissues/effects of TSH?

A

stimulates synthesis and secretion of T3 and T4 thyroid hormones from the thyroid, which stimulate the metabolic rate

62
Q

What hormones from the anterior pit. do not have a specific inhibiting hormone?

A

FSH, LH, and ACTH

63
Q

What hormones from the anterior pituitary are NOT tropic?

A

PRL and MSH

64
Q

What is the difference in how the hypothalamus communicates with the anterior ad posterior pituitary?

A

anterior - capillary plexus allow releasing and inihibiting hormones released from the hypothalamus to travel through blood, down to the anterior pit., where tropic hormones are created and released out to tissues

posterior - hypothalamohypophyseal tracts connect the hypothalamus and posterior pit. so that the hormones are created in the hypothalamus and travel down to the posterior pit. to be directly released into systemic circulation

65
Q

Which part(s) of the pituitary synthesize hormones?

A

anterior only

66
Q

How many axon terminals travel down to the posterior pituitary? How many hormones travel down these terminatls? What type of hormones are they?

A

2 axon terminals, transport the peptide hormones OT and ADH

67
Q

In what ways does the posterior pituitary resemble neural tissue?

A

glial cells, nerve fibers, nerve endings, and neurosecretory vesicles

68
Q

Where is ADH synthesized, and what signals it to be produced?

A

in the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus
made in response to signals from osmoreceptors which monitor blood hydration status

69
Q

What are the actions and target tissues of ADH?

A

kidneys - increase water reabsorption, decreasing urine production
sweat glands - prevents water loss
vessels - “vasopressin,” cause constriction of aterioles

70
Q

What is the general desponse of ADH production during dehydration/high osmolarity and overhydration/low osmolarity?

A

dehydration/high osmo - ADH released by posterior pit.

overhydration/low osmo - ADH release is inhibited

71
Q

What are the two other things we learned can affect ADH function?

A

alcohol - stops ADH release

diabetes insipidus - lack of ADH or nonfunctional ADH receptors, inability of kidneys to conserve H2O, and excessive urination (2 L/day to 20 L/day)

72
Q

Where is OT produced, and what are the target tissues/effects? Positive or negative feedback?

A

produced in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

uterus: during labor
mammary glands: after delivery in response to suckling

positive feedback

73
Q

Explain the positive feedback loop for the regulation of uterine contraction during childbirth. Include how it ends.

A

baby’s head stretches cervix
OT released
uterine smooth muscle contracts
baby’s head pushed harder on cervix = more stretch
more OT
repeat until baby is born, and loop ends because there is no more pressure on the cervix

74
Q

Explain the negative feedback loop for the regulation of mammary gland function.

A

suckling, hearing babby cry cause OT release
Smooth muscle contraction (milk ejection)
Baby is fed and stops crying
no more OT release
no more milk ejection

75
Q

Explain the meaning of lactation, as well as the difference between PRL and OT.

A

lactation: milk production and ejection

PRL: milk production
OT: milk ejection

76
Q

Explain the histology of a thryoid follicle.

A

interior solid part - thyroglobulin (TGB)

entire circular complex - follicle

First layer of cells around a follicle - follicular cells

Other cells not in the ring - parafollicular cells

outermost membrane (outside first layer of cells) - basement membrane

77
Q

What cells produces the thyroid hormones, and what are the hormones produced?

A

follicular cells produce T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine), parafollicular cells produce calcitonin

78
Q

What are the basic steps for forming T3 and T4?

A
  1. iodide trapping into follicular cells
  2. synthesize and release thyroglobulin (TGB) into colloid
  3. oxidation of iodide
  4. iodination of TGB tyrosine in colloid
  5. formation of T3 and T$ by combining T1 and T2
  6. TGB is taken in and digested by follicle cells
  7. T3 and T4 are secreted into the blood
  8. bind and transport T3 and T4 on a TBG (thyroxine-binding globulin) carrier
79
Q

Which is the active form of thyroid hormone?

A

T3

80
Q

Briefly, what are the 4 actions of thyroid hormones?

A

increase basal metabolic rate
increase Na+/K+ ATPase
enhance actions of the sympathetic nervous system (up regulate beta receptors)
stimulate growth

81
Q

How do thyroid hormones increase the basal metabolic rate?

A

increase cellular use of O2 to produce ATP by breaking down glucose, fatty acids, and triglycerides

82
Q

How do thyroid hormones affect the Na+/K+ ATPase?

A

they increase synthesis of Na+/K+ ATPase, resulting in more ATP used to pump ions, which produces heat and raises body temp (calorigenic effect)

83
Q

How do thyroid hormones enhance sympathetic nervous system actions?

A

They bind to beta-receptors (mimicking neurotransmitters) and increase heart rate, contractility, and BP

84
Q

When and where do thyroid hormones stimulate growth?

A

in the nervous and skeletal systems primarily during development

85
Q

What does hyposecretion of thyroid hormones cause, both during development and in adults?

A

development - dwarfism and severe mental retardation (congenital hypothyroidism or cretinism)
adults - edema, low heart rate, muscle weakness, sensitivity to cold, low body temp, weight gain, mental dullness

86
Q

How does hypersecretion of thyroid hormones impact adults?

A

Graves’ Disease
weight loss, nervousness, tremors, increased heart rate and blood pressure, exophthalmos (edema behind eyes), high body temp, sweating

87
Q

What causes a goiter?

A

low iodine —> low T3 and T4 —> higher TSH —> thyroid growth

88
Q

What are the parathyroid glads main targets and actions?

A

main goal: raise blood calcium

osteoclasts - increase activity
kidney - increase reabsoprtion of Ca++, inhibit reabsorption of phosphate, form calcitriol which causes the intestines to absorb Ca++ and Mg++

89
Q

What do the parafollicular cells produce, and what effect does that have?

A

calcitonin, lower blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts

90
Q

What do the parathyroid’s chief cells produce, and what effect does this have?

A

PTH, raises blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts

91
Q

What do the follicular cells produce, and what effect does this have on calcium levels?

A

T3 and T4, no calcium effects

92
Q

What happens if blood calcium is too high? Too low?

A

too high —-> thyroid gland parafollicular cells release calcitonin —-> inhibit osteoclasts and decrease reabsorption —–> calcium drops

too low —–> parathyroid gland chief cells release PTH ——> increase osteoclast activity, kidney reabsorption, and calcitriol in the intestine —–> increase calcium

93
Q

What is the normal blood calcium level?

A

8.5-11 mgCa++ / 100 mL of blood

94
Q

What are the layers of the adrenal gland from superficial to deep?

A

capsule, zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis, and adrenal medulla

95
Q

What type of hormone does the zona glomerulosa produce, and what is the main example? What effects occur from this hormone?

A

mineralocorticoids
aldosterone
- increase absorption and reabsorption (GI and kidney) of Na+, Cl-, and water
- excretion of K+ and H+ from kidney

96
Q

What is aldosteronism?

A

hypersecretion of mineralocorticoids, resulting in high BP from retention of Na+ and water

97
Q

What type of hormone does the zona fasciculata produce, and what is the main example? What effects occur from this hormone?

A

glucocorticoids
cortisol (hydrocortisone)
- regulation of metabolism during stress by…
- increase protein catabolism and lipolysis
- promote gluconeogenesis
- resistance to stress by making nutrients available
- raise BP by increasing sensitivity to vasoconstrictor

98
Q

What is the negative effect of cortisol, and how does it occur?

A

anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive
- reduce histamine release
- decrease capillary permeability (less fluid can enter)
- decrease phagocytosis and WBC count

99
Q

What is the pathology of Cushing’s Syndrome, and what are some symptoms?

A

hypersecretion of glucocorticoids

redistribution of fat to the face, spindly arms and legs due to muscle loss, poor wound healing, and bruising easily

100
Q

What is the pathology of Addison’s Disease, and what are some symptoms?

A

hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone

hypoglycemia, muscle weakness, low BP, dehydration, mimic skin darkening effect of MSH, potential cardiac arrest

101
Q

What type of hormone does the zona reticularis produce, and what is the main example? What effects occur from this hormone?

A

androgens
DHEA
- sex drive in females
- form of estrogen for postmenopausal women

102
Q

What does the adrenal medulla produce, and what are the effects? What cells produce hormones in the medulla?

A

chromaffin cells produce 80% epi and 20% norepi. which mimic the effects of sympathetic NS and cause fight or flight behavior (sympathomimetic)

103
Q

Regarding stress responses, what is the overall difference between short term and long term stress responses?

A

short term - epi and norepi produced by the medulla

long term - mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids produced by the zona glomerulosa and zona fasciculata

104
Q

Regarding stress responses, how are the effects different for short term and long term stress?

A

short term - epi and norepi cause glycogen breakdown, increase blood glucose, increase blood pressure/breathing rate/metabolic rate, change in bloodflow patterns leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive/excretory/reproductive activity

long term -
aldosterone: retention of water and NA+, increase blood volume and blood pressure
cortisol: proteins and fats broken down, increase blood glucose, suppress immune system

105
Q

In the pancreas, what are the cell types and what do they each produce?

A

alpha - glucagon
beta - insulin
delta - somatostatin
F cell - pancreatic polypeptide

106
Q

What does somatostatin do? Where is it released, and what inhibits it?

A

it inhibits GH, insulin, and glucagon release
it is released by the delta cells of the pancreas
it is inhibited by the pancreatic polypeptide

107
Q

What are the functions of the pancreatic polypeptide?

A

inhibit somatostatin release, gallbladder contraction, secretion of digestive enzymes from the pancreas

108
Q

What is the pathway of response for low blood sugar?

A

glucagon acts on hepatocytes, they convert glycogen to glucose, glucose is released and raises blood glucose

109
Q

What is the pathway of response for high blood sugar?

A

insulin acts on various cells:
- accelerate diffusion of glucose into cells
- speed conversion of glucose into glycogen
- increase synthesis of proteins and fatty acids
- slow glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

all cause blood glucose to fall

110
Q

What are the main symptoms of diabetes mellitus? Why do these symptoms make sense?

A

excessive urine production (polyuria), excessive thirst (polydipsia), and excessive eating (polyphagia)

increase glucose stops the kidneys from absorbing water, so it all leaves the body through urination and then the person is thirsty too. High glucose also reduced protein breakdown, etc. so nutrition is lacking as well.

111
Q

What are the differences in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus?

A

type 1 - deficiency of insulin, typically juvenile onset
type 2 - decrease insulin sensitivity, typically adult onset

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