Prospective Memory (everyday Memory)

Question 1

What is retrospective memory

Answer 1

Info of events or experiences in the past

Question 2

Prospective memory on taxonomy of long term memory

Answer 2

Not included - CRITICISM

Question 3

Ellis - stages in a PM task

Answer 3

1. Formation and encoding of an intention ie what, when, intention/commitment to performing
2. Retention interval - retain intention whilst engaged in other activities (delayed)
3. Retrieval of intention - retrieval context and realise have an intention to carry out
4. Initiate and Carry out
5. Evaluate the outcome - successful?

Question 4

What do prospective memory tasks involve? (Einstein et al)

Answer 4

Retrospective component -
Remember whah have to do and when you should do it

Prospective component -
Remember to recall intention at correct moment when reminded

Need to self Initiate the retrieval of the intended action without explicit prompt to do so

Question 5

Define event based retrieval Context

Answer 5

Perform an intention when a particular event occurs

External cue reminds you that you have something to do

Question 6

Define time based retrieval contexts

Answer 6

Perform intention at a particular time or after a particular period of time as elapsed

No external cue - check time periodically in retention interval

Question 7

What pm recall is better using event based or time based retrieval context

Answer 7

Event based better than time based

Question 8

Diary studies for PM

Answer 8

Participant record own intentions and report whether or not carried out

Question 9

Field studies for PM

Answer 9

Participant asked to go about their daily lives and remember something asked to do for the experiment ie post letter or call experimenter

Question 10

Benefits of real world studies of PM

Answer 10

Ecological validity - naturally occurring intentions and tasks that mimic everyday

Question 11

Cons of real world studies of PM

Answer 11

Lack experimental control

Ie set alarm to call experimenter

Question 12

Lab studies for PM

Describe einstein and McDaniel

Answer 12

Participant occupied with ongoing task

Asked to make response when a cue word appears or when a certain amount of time has passed

Cue (time or event) requires interrupting ongoing task and perform intention without an explicit reminder

Question 13

Einstein and McDaniel

Ways we retrieve an intention

Answer 13

Automatically - sling to mind without attending

Through attentional strategic processes

Question 14

What is prospective memories

Answer 14

Remembering to carry out your intentions in the near future - vital for daily living

Question 15

Methods of examining on retrieval and attention

Answer 15

Cost to the ongoing task
Effect of development/ageing
Effect of divided attention

Question 16

Describe cost to ongoing task

Answer 16

PM requires attention - less attention to ongoing task so slowed performance

Question 17

Describe effect of development/aging on PM

Answer 17

Young children/older adults fewer attentional resources

Question 18

Describe effect of divided attention on PM

Answer 18

If PM requires attention then second task that also requires attention should disrupt PM performance

Question 19

Smith 2003 cost to ongoing task for PM

Answer 19

On going lexical decision task (words real or not)

PM learn 6 cue words - press keg when see cue word - NO CUE ACTUALLY APPEAR

1. Expect to see cue after task
2. Expect to see cue during task

‘During’ much slower response time than after - requires monitoring for cue word and this takes up attention

Question 20

Smith ‘prepatory attentional and memory processes model’

Answer 20

Attentional resources always required for successful PM retrieval

Question 21

Marsh et al 2003 cost to On going task

Answer 21

Compare speed of ongoing to Pps who:

1. Respond to cue word DOG in LDT
2. Not asked to respond to a cue word
   - no sig diff between groups

93% cue words detected (not doing task at expense of PM)

Suggests attention not necessary for PM retrieval and only need automatic retrieval when we encounter the cue

Question 22

McDaniel and Einstein ‘multiprocess account’

Answer 22

Approaches to retrieving an intention:

1. PM retrieval sometimes automatics and sometimes require attention (strategic)
2. Need for attention resources depend on:
   Relation between cue and action
   No. retrieval cues
   Relation between cue and ongoing task (cue focality)
3. Preference for automatic retrieval

Question 23

Contrast between smith prepatory attentional and memory processes and McDaniel and Einstein multiprocess account

Answer 23

PAM argues attentional resources always needed for successful PM

Multiprocess argues prefer automatic but can be attentional also - depends on situation

Question 24

Cue - action relationship and automatic retrieval assumption

Answer 24

Assume that automatic retrieval more likely when strong relationship between the cue and the action

Question 25

McDaniel et al 2004 divided attention and cue action relation

Answer 25

Divided attention to asses attention demands - if strong cue action relation is automatic then secondary task have little effect - if weak cue action requires attention then PM impaired when divided by second task Ongoing task: rate words PM task: four cue words in ongoing task Related condition: see spaghetti write sauce Unrelated condition: see spaghetti write church Divided attention: listen to stream of digits and press button if hear two odd numbers + full attention condition

Question 26

Results McDaniel et al 2004 divided attention on cue action relation

Answer 26

Superior PM when cue related > unrelated No difference in PM between divided/full attention when related - intention retrieved automatically PM worse in divided when unrelated - strategic processing to retrieve intent

Question 27

McDaniel and Einstein 2000 number of cues

Answer 27

Number of cues influence demand for attention Detect single cue automatically Detect multiple cues requires attention (Cost to ongoing when 6 diff cues but not when single cue - smith 2003, marsh et al 2003)

Question 28

PM retrieval and cue focality assumption

Answer 28

retrieval more likely automatic when directly relevant to ongoing task (focal) than when not (non focal)

Question 29

Einstein et al 2005 PM and cue focality

Answer 29

Ongoing task - category in uppercase then word of category in lower case - is lowercase part of category? Focal: press key when see word relate to category Non focal: press key when see syllable 'tor' in word (ongoing task requires process of whole not syllable)

Question 30

Results Einstein et al 2005 PM and cue focality

Answer 30

93% success rate for focal 63% for non focal Cost of ongoing task demand for attention: Control and focal performance in ongoing task the same - automatic Task performance slower for non focal - strategic monitoring for PM cues

Question 31

Harris 1984 time based task on PM retrieval

Answer 31

Test wait test exit model Don't continuously monitor for appropriate intention time but periodically sample time to check for right moment ie check every half hour

Question 32

Harris and Wilkins 1982 time based tasks and PM

Answer 32

Pps watch two hour film and given pile of cards with designated times - told to hold up each card after the amount of time has past - only way to check was look at clock behind them - monitor time strategically during retention intervals - infrequent checks and then more frequent nearer target time - monitoring behaviour determines PM success - increase freq near target time then more likely to respond on time

Question 33

What are encoding factors

Answer 33

Implementation intentions a typically involve precise specification of when an intention will be Carried out x verbal statement of intent x imagery of performing action Event based task but with additional instructions that focus encoding process in link between the cue and the actions

Question 34

McDaniel et al 2008 implementation actions

Answer 34

Pps press Q key when see word spaghetti or doll on word rating task 1. Read only - repeat instructions back to experimenter 2. Imagery - repeat instructions and imagine performing intention for 30 secs 3. Implementation - repeat instruction, imagine performing then read aloud what they will do ~either full or divided attention~

Question 35

Results McDaniel et al 2008 implementation intentions

Answer 35

Implementation benefit PM > read aloud or imagery - especially when divided attention No evidence that divided attention impairs PM in implementation - implementation intention strengthen link between cue and action? - automatic retrieval of intention when cue

Question 36

Periera Ellis and freeman 2009 enactment

Answer 36

Pps learn cue action pairs 1. Verbal encoding (read aloud) 2. Entactment at encoding (perform mine) Ongoing task - word categorisation - remember actions when see cues Enacting at encoding improves PM performance

Question 37

Retention interval factors on PM retrieval

Answer 37

Event based PM influenced by: - Length of retention interval between encoding and retrieval - nature of the activities performed in the retention interval PM best when multiple activities in retention interval and retention interval longer

Question 38

Why do retention interval factors impact PM performance

Answer 38

Multiple activities provide breaks giving opportunity to review intentions Attention drift from activities during long retention interval - more likely to think about intentions Effects of retention interval vary according to attentional attentional demands of task? - less interval of retention interval factors if PM automatic

Question 39

Ellis diary study benefit of task importance on PM

Answer 39

Positive correlation between importance of intention and likelihood or recollection

Question 40

Andrzejewski et al questionnaire study on task importance of PM

Answer 40

Report that higher proportion of important intentions are completed > unimportant

Question 41

Somerville et al field study of task importance on PM

Answer 41

Children more likely to remind parents to take to sweet shop than bring the washing in

Question 42

Kliegel et al 2001 LAB task importance on PM

Answer 42

Pps complete computerised word rating task Time based - press red key every 2 min (PM) Event based - press key when see word gespräch 1/2 told PM more important than word task 1/2 told word rating more important - PM more important more likely to respond in time based but no effect of importance on PM in event based task

Question 43

Kliegel et al 2004 LAB task importance on PM

Answer 43

Non focal: press key when see letters g or q Focal: press key when see word gespräch 1/2 PM more important and vise versa - benefit of relative importance of PM in non focal but not focal - only influence when strategic processing used

Question 44

PM failures in everyday life

Answer 44

Dismukes 27 US air incidents and 5 due to failure of PM Nowinski Holbrook and dismukes 74/75 memory errors in aviation safety reporting involved forgetting to carry out task

Question 45

Loukopoulos dismukes and barshi observation of PM in everyday

Answer 45

Observed real world performance on airplane pilots during flight simulation training and real flights in cockpit Pilots frequently interrupted during vital tasks creating a need to form intent to resume after interruption - pilots go straight to new task after interruption without completing interrupted task

Question 46

Why might interruption disrupt Performance hypothesis

Answer 46

Demanding interruptions divert attention A fail to form adequate intent to resume No explicit cue to prompt retrieval of intention once interruption dealt with

Question 47

Dodhia and dismukes 2005 interruptions on PM

Answer 47

Students answer general knowledge Q in blocks Told interrupted at various points After interruption told they should go back and completed interrupted block of questions before starting new block BUT after interruption computer presents new Q (have to remember to go back

Question 48

Results dodhia and dismukes 2005 interruption on PM

Answer 48

Hyp 1: interruption consumes attention: Interrupt activity immediate - 48% resume blocks Interior with 4 sec blank screen before task - 65% resume blocks Hyp 2: no explicit retrieval cue to return Message saying 'end of interruption' - increase to 90%