RAT 10 Flashcards
1
Q
what is phagocytosis?
A
the process by which cells ingest particles and other cells
2
Q
what are the four phagocytic cells that provide innate immunity?
A
- macrophages
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- dendritic cells
3
Q
macrophages form from which cell?
A
monocytes
4
Q
what happens to pathogens after they are ingested by macrophages?
A
macrophage breaks it down by mixing it with enzymes stored in lysosomes, then excreted
5
Q
what is the role of NK cells?
A
- recognize cancerous cells and cells infected with certain viruses even though they cant recognize antigens
- activates macrophages and enhances phagocytosis
6
Q
what is the complement system?
A
a group of proteins that function in innate immunity
7
Q
what are the five ways that activated complement proteins provide protection against pathogens?
A
- cell lysis
- enhanced inflammation
- neutralized viruses
- enhanced phagocytosis
- clearance of immune complexes
8
Q
what is a cytokine?
A
proteins produced by several types of immune cells that enhance the immune response in some way
9
Q
name the three types of cytokines.
A
- tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
- interferons (IFN)
- interleukins (IL)
10
Q
what is the function of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)?
A
can induce death of tumor cells
11
Q
what is the function of interferons (IFN)?
A
“interfere” in the ability of the pathogen to infect other cells
12
Q
what is the function of interleukins (IL)?
A
stimulates production of neutrophils by the bone marrow, stimulates NK cells, activating T cells
13
Q
what is inflammation?
A
the immune system’s response to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, toxic compounds, or irradiation
14
Q
what are the two stages of the inflammatory response?
A
- damaged cells release inflammatory mediators that cause local changed in the damaged tissue
- phagocytes arrive at the area and clean up the damaged tissue
15
Q
what are the four cardinal signs of inflammation?
A
- vasodilation of arterioles
- increased capillary permeability
- occurrence of pain
- recruitment of other cells
16
Q
explain the role of phagocytes in the inflammatory response
A
destroy pathogenic material
17
Q
what is a fever?
A
body temperature above the normal range (>97-99)
18
Q
what chemicals initiate a fever?
A
pyrogens
19
Q
where is the body’s thermostat located?
A
hypothalamus
20
Q
what is the benefit of fever?
A
phagocytes function more efficiently at a slightly higher temperature, which helps to increase the recovery rate
21
Q
list functions of the nose and nasal cavity
A
- warm and humidify the inhaled air
- filter out debris from inhaled air and secrete antibacterial substances
- house olfactory receptors
- enhance the resonance of the voice
22
Q
the nose if formed by paired __________ bones and ________________ cartilage
A
- nasal
- lateral and alar
23
Q
what is the anatomical term for the nostrils?
A
anterior nares
24
Q
what is the name for the posterior openings of the nasal cavity?
A
posterior nares
25
what is the name of the most anterior part of the nasal cavity?
vestibule
26
name the three bony projections in the nasal cavity and the bone associated with each of them.
- superior nasal conchae (ethmoid bone)
- middle nasal conchae (ethmoid bone)
- inferior nasal conchae (independent bones)
27
name the three narrow passages through the nasal cavity
- superior nasal meatuses
- middle nasal meatuses
- inferior nasal meatuses
28
what are the hallow cavities that are not connected to the nasal cavity via small passage ways?
paranasal sinuses
29
in which bones are paranasal sinuses located?
- frontal
- ethmoid
- sphenoid
- maxillary bones
30
what is the function of the paranasal sinuses?
warm, humidify, filter the air, lighten the skill, enhance voice resonance
31
what tissue lines the vestibule? how is this tissue related to its function?
- stratified squamous epithelium
- enables it to be more resistant to mechanical stressors
32
what tissue lines the olfactory region of the nasal cavity? what is its function?
- olfactory mucosa
- houses olfactory receptors
33
describe the tissue that is known as respiratory epithelium or respiratory mucosa
- composed of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- function: air filtration
34
what tissue lines the remainder of the nasal cavity? what is the name for this tissue? describe how this is an example of form follow function.
- pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- respiratory mucosa
- foreign cells get trapped in the mucous made by the goblet cells and the cilia beat in unison to propel to debris and mucous to the posterior nasal cavity
35
what interesting phenomenon occurs every 30 minutes in your nasal cavity?
the side filled with blood switches and air flows through the previously obstructed side
36
what is the most superior portion of the pharynx?
- nasopharynx
37
what tissue lines the nasopharynx?
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
38
what demarcates the boundaries of the nasopharynx?
uvala and soft palate
39
what is the 2nd portion of the pharynx?
oropharynx
40
what tissue lines the oropharynx and why?
- nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- because food and air passes through
41
what demarcates the boundaries of the oropharynx?
uvula to epiglottis
42
what is the most inferior portion of the pharynx that extends from the epiglottis to the esophagus?
laryngopharynx
43
what tissue lines the laryngopharynx and why?
- nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- because food and air passes through
44
what does the laryngopharynx open up to anteriorly?
larynx
45
describe the function of the larynx
keeps food and liquids out of the rest of the respiratory tract and houses the vocal cords
46
describe the location of the larynx
anterior to the esophagus and extends from about the third to the sixth cervical vertebrae
47
what is the largest cartilage of the larynx?
thyroid cartilage
48
what is the common name for thyroid cartilage?
"adam's apple"
49
what type of cartilage composes thyroid cartilage?
hyaline cartilage
50
what is the glottis?
the opening between the vocal cords of the larynx through which air passes
51
what covers the glottis during swallowing?
epiglottis
52
what type of cartilage composes the epiglottis?
elastic cartilage
53
what unpaired cartilage of the larynx is located inferior to the thyroid cartilage?
cricoid cartilage
54
what type of cartilage composes cricoid cartilage?
hyaline cartilage
55
what are the three paired cartilages of the larynx?
- arytenoid cartilage
- corniculate cartilage
- cuneiform cartilage
56
where are the vestibular folds located?
inner surface of the larynx
57
what cartilages do the vestibular folds attach to?
arytenoid and thyroid cartilage
58
what is the function of the vestibular folds?
close off the glottis during swallowing
59
where are the vocal folds located?
inferior to the vestibular folds
60
what cartilages do the vocal folds attach to?
arytenoid and thyroid cartilage
61
what is the function of the vocal folds?
production of sound
62
when do the vocal folds produce a low pitch sound?
the vocal ligaments are more abducted because they are looser and vibrate more rapidly
63
when do the vocal folds produce a high pitch sound?
vocal ligaments are tightly adducted because they are tense and vibrate more rapidly
64
where is the trachea located?
inferior part of the neck and extends to the mediastinum
65
what type of cartilage is found in the trachea?
hyaline cartilage
66
describe the shape of the cartilage found in the trachea
rings in a c-shape
67
what is found on the posterior surface of the trachea? what is the benefit of this?
- elastic CT and a band of smooth muscle
- allows the esophagus to expand during swallowing
68
what is found on the inferior end of the trachea? what is its function?
- carina
- triggers a violent cough reflex if any foreign material comes in contact with them
69
describe the layers that compose the wall of the trachea
- mucosa (inner): pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- submucosa: loose CT
- adventitia (outer): dense irregular CT
70
what is the bronchial tree?
a series of progressively smaller passages that terminate in tiny alveoli
71
the trachea divides into what two structures?
- right and left primary bronchi
72
what do the primary bronchi divide into?
secondary bronchi
73
how many secondary bronchi are found in the left lung?
2
74
how many secondary bronchi are found in the right lung?
3
75
what do secondary bronchi divide into?
tertiary bronchi
76
how many tertiary bronchi are found in the lungs?
10 in each = 20 total
*left lung may have 1 or 2 fever than the right
77
what histological changes occur as the bronchi continue to divide into smaller and smaller passageways?
- cartilage changes from c-shaped to complete rings, and then to irregular plates that are progressively fewer in number
- epithelium gradually changes from respiratory epithelium in the larger bronchi to columnar cells that become progressively shorter in smaller bronchi
- amount of smooth muscle gradually increases
78
describe bronchioles
- smallest airway of the bronchial tree
- less than 1 mm in diameter and lack cartilage
- thicker ring of smooth muscle and simple cuboidal epithelium with few cilia and few, if any, goblet cells
79
what is the last structure in the conducting zone?
terminal bronchioles
80
what is the first structure in the respiratory zone? why is it considered part of the respiratory system?
- respiratory bronchioles
- contain alveoli budding off their walls
81
the respiratory bronchioles branch into what structures?
alveolar ducts
82
what is found at the end of the bronchial tree?
alveolar saces
83
describe the structure of the cells that are found in the alveolus
- type 1
- type 2
- alveolar macrophages
84
what is the function of type 1 cells found in the alveolus?
(90%) squamous; rapid diffusion of gas across plasma membrane
85
what is the function of type 2 cells found in the alveolus?
(10%) small cubodial; help to reduce surface tension on the alveoli
86
what is the function of alveolar macrophages?
phagocytes derived from cells formed in bone marrow, clean up and digest spare debris
87
what is the respiratory membrane?
the barrier through which gases must diffuse
88
what are the components of the respiratory membrane?
- type 1 alveolar cells
- basal lamina of the type 1 alveolar cells
- capillary endothelial cells
89
it takes about 100 respiratory membranes to equal the thickness of one human hair. what is the benefit of having such a thin membrane?
makes pulmonary gas exchange a very efficient process
90
the surface area is around the size of a racquetball court. what is the benefit of all that surface area?
large surface makes pulmonary gas exchange a very efficient process
91
each tertiary bronchi serves a ___________________________________
bronchopulmonary segment
92
what vessel carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs?
pulmonary artery
93
what vessel carries oxygenated blood to the lungs? this vessel is part of which circuit?
- bronchial arteries
- systemic circuit
94
the lungs are located in the ___________________________ cavity and are surround by the ____________________ cavities
- pleural
- pericardial
95
the pleural cavity is located between which two membranes?
- partieal pleura
- visceral pleura
96
what fluid is found inside the pleural cavity?
pleural fluid
97
what is the function of pleural fluid and the pleural cavity?
lubricates the lungs as they expand and contract reducing friction
