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Psychology SL > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

(84 cards)

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1
Q

Generalisability

A

The ability to apply research findings from a sample to the broader target population

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2
Q

Biased sample

A

A sample that disproportionately represents certain segments of the population
* leads to over/underrepresentation of a specific group

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3
Q

Types of sampling

A
  • Random
  • Stratified
  • Opportunity
  • Volunteer / Self-selected
  • Snowball
  • Purposive
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4
Q

Random sampling

A

Everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected
* Uses raffle method to choose those who participate

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5
Q

Random sampling advantage

A

Sample should represent target population and eliminate sampling bias

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6
Q

Random sampling disadvantage

A

Very difficult to achieve (time, effort and money)

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7
Q

Startified sampling

A

The researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population and works out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative

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8
Q

Stratified sampling disadvantage

A

Gathering such a sample would be extremely time consuming and difficult (almost never used in psych.)

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9
Q

Stratified sample advantage

A

Sample would be highly representative of target population so would be generalisable from results

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10
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Participants chosen based on ease of availability and proximity to researcher rather than through systematic criteria
* a type of convenience sampling

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11
Q

Opportunity sampling advantage

A

Quick and easy way of choosing participants

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12
Q

Opportunity sampling disadvantage

A

May not provide representative sample and can be biased

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13
Q

Volunteer sampling

A

Respondents put themselves forward for participation in a form of reserach

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14
Q

Volunteer sampling advantage

A

People that sign-up are usually motivated and are less likely to drop out

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15
Q

Volunteer sampling disadvantage

A

May lead to sample that is not representative of target population

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16
Q

Purposive sampling

A

Intentionally selecting participants based on characteristics, knowledge, or other criteria

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17
Q

Purposive sampling advantage

A

Allows for the selection of participants who are most relevant to the research question
* data collected is directly pertinent to objective

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18
Q

Purposive sampling disadvantage

A

Highly prone to researcher bias

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19
Q

Snowball sampling

A

Begins with one participant. It then continues on the basis of referrals from those participants. Process continues until you reach the desired sample or a saturation point

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20
Q

Snowball sampling advantage

A

Access hard-to-reach population who wouldn’t respond to ad in paper

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21
Q

Snowball sampling disadvantages

A

It is usually impossible to determine the sampling error or make inferences about populations based on the obtained sample.

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22
Q

Extraneous variable

A

A variable that influences the results of an experiment (e.g. the noise surrounding a field experiment)

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23
Q

Internal validity

A

The extent of confidence that the relationship being tested is reliable and not influenced by external variables.

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24
Q

Demand characteristics

A

When participants form an interpretation of the aim of the researcher’s study and subconsciously or consciously change their behaviour to fit that interpretation.

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25
Expectancy effect
When a participant acts a certain way to strictly comply with what the researcher asks.
26
Screw-you effect
When a participant attempts to figure out the researcher's hyptheses, only to destroy the study’s credibility. (e.g. arrogant researcher leads to purposeful mess up of participants)
27
Social desirability Effect
When participants act a certain way because the believe it is the ‘socially-acceptable’ thing to do
28
Reactivity
Participants will simply act differently because they are being observed. Differs from expectancy effect in that it is UNCONSCIOUSLY done
29
Order effects
Changes in the participants’ responses that result from the order (first, second, third) in which the experimental conditions are presented to them.
30
Fatigue effects
When asked to participate in several conditions of the same experiment, participants get bored or demotivated which may diminish their concentration and influence the results.
31
Practice effect
When participants improve in a task due to their repetition of the conditions in the experiment.
32
Researcher bias
When the beliefs of the researcher influence the outcomes or conclusions of the research.
33
Confirmation bias
When a researcher searches for or orientates towards information that supports their preexisting belief or hypothesis.
34
P-hacking
When the researcher finds patterns in their collected data that can be presented as statistically significant but wasn’t the initial aim of their study.
35
Dependent variable
Variable that is measured
36
Independent variable
Variable that is changed to (hypothetically) affect the dependent variable
37
Confounding variable
Variable that will influence both the dependent and the independent variables
38
Research designs
* Independent measures * Repeated measure * Quasi-experimental design * Matched pairs design
39
Factors influencing what design is chosen? (name 3)
* Research method used * Whether the researcher can manipulate the variables * Whether participants can be randomly allocated into experimental (or control) groups * Characteristics of participants (is it distinguishable)
40
Repeated measures design
Participants take part and are assessed in each experimental condition. Therefore, the data for each IV condition come from the same participants
41
Advantages of repeated measures design (name 1)
* Eliminates the potential individual differences between groups * Makes recruitment easier
42
Independent measures design
Researchers only assign participants to one of the experimental conditions
43
Advantages of independent measures design (1)
This design also allows you to avoid order effects and demand characteristics.
44
Matched pairs design
Participants are first paired based on specific characteristics that could be potential confounding variables. Then each individual in the matched pair is randomly assigned to an experimental or control group
45
Quasi-experiment design
Tests different participants at each independent variable level, except that participants are not randomly assigned to conditions * utilises naturally existing groups and investigates differences between them
46
Quantitative research methods
* Experiments * Correlational studies
47
Experiment types
* Laboratory/true experiment * Field experiment * Natural experiment
48
Laboratory/true experiment
Conducted in a well-controlled environment * Extraneous variables can be controlled * Participants are randomly allocated * Measurements are as accurate as possible
49
Strengths of lab experiments (name 2)
* Easier to replicate due to the use of standardized procedures * Allow precise control of extraneous and independent variables * Cause and effect relationship can be established (ONLY TYPE WHERE THIS HAPPENS!)
50
Limitations of lab experiments
* Artificial environment: can cause unnatural behaviour that does not reflect real life * Can make it difficult to generalize findings
51
Field experiments
Carried out in real-life environments * IV is still manipulated but in a real-life setting * No control over extraneous variables * Cannot randomly allocate participants
52
Strengths of field experiments (2)
* Behaviour is more likely to reflect real life (Higher ecological validity) * Less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting results, since participants may not know they are being studied
53
Limitations of field experiments
* Less control over extraneous variables that may bias the results * Difficult for other researchers to replicate the study in exactly the same way
54
Natural experiments
Research is carried out in a natural setting * The researcher attempts to observe the effects of naturally occurring variables (there is minimal manipulation of IV) * Participants are randomly allocated to conditions
55
Strengths of natural experiments (name 2)
* Behaviour is more likely to reflect real life (Higher ecological validity) * Less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting results, since participants may not know they are being studied. * Can be used when it would be unethical to manipulate de IV (ex. Stress)
56
Limitation of natural experiments
Less control over extraneous variables that may bias the results
57
Correlational study
Correlational studies is a non-experimental research method and a statistical analysis used to understand the linear relationship or association between two variables. * NO manipulation of variables * NO controls * NO cause-and-effect relationships
58
Strengths of correlational studies (name 2)
* Allows researchers to investigate naturally occurring variables that could be unethical or impractical to test experimentally: Ex. Does smoking cause lung cancer? * Allows researcher to clearly and easily spot relationships between variables * Quick and easy to conduct
59
Limitations of correlational studies
* Correlation ≠ Causation * It does not allow us to go beyond the given data * Other potential confounding factors are not considered
60
Qualitative research methods
* Interviews * Observational studies
61
Mixed (qualitative & quantitative) studies
* surveys/questionnaires * observational studies
62
Interviews (& types of questions)
Questions asked by researchers to generate data * closed questions: fixed set of responses * open questions: allow participants to express themselves in their own words
63
Structured interviews strengths (2)
* simple to have large sample size * easy to analyse and compare data with other interviewees
64
Structured interviews limitations (2)
* may appear artificial * may seem impersonal/irrelevant to interviewee
65
Informal interviews strengths (2)
* open to interests + motivation of interviewee * results may be more valid (accurate representation of thoughts and feelings)
66
Informal interviews limitations (2)
* difficult to carry out with large sample * more difficult to analyse data
67
Semi structure unterviews (outline)
* Mix of both structured + unstructured * Open-ended questions are defined beforehand BUT focused on allowing interviewee to answer freely * Questions can be asked in any order, questions can be added or skipped as the interview progresses - flexibility
68
Interviews strengths (2)
* group conversations feel more natural * saves time
69
Interviews limitations (2)
* Difficult with large sample * More difficult to analyse data
70
Survey/questionnaired
Like a written interview - can be carried out face to face, by telephone, post, email * can be qual or quan * liker response questions (scale-based)
71
Strengths of survey/questionnaries (3)
* cheap and quick * allow obtaining large amounts of info from large sample of people * simple and straightforward when studying attitudes, beliefs, values etc.
72
Limitations of surveys/questionnaires (2)
* self-reported data may be biased - respondents tend to lie/bend the truth due to social desirability * need to be carefully planned and designed - can become time consuming
73
Case studies
* In-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community * Can include both qual + quan info - descriptions, scores, tests, feelings
74
Method triangulation
Using multiple methods of investigation to explore the same phenomenon
75
Case studies strengths (3)
* Provides detailed, rich qualitative information * Provides insight for further research * Allows investigations of otherwise impractical/unethical situations
76
Case studies limitations (name 3)
* Can’t generalize results to the wider population * Researchers’ own subjective feeling may influence results (researcher bias) * Difficult to replicate -› low reliability of data * Time consuming
77
Observational studies
Info collected by observing an individual/group * aims to describe behaviour without trying to establish cause-effect relationships * most are in natural setting but can be in laboratories
78
Types of observations
* participant observations - observer becomes part of the group studied * non participant observations - observer remains outside of group as watcher * covert observations - researchers are undercover so people are not aware they are being observed * overt observations - people know they are being observed (know observer and aim of study)
79
Observational studies limitations and solutions (3)
* Cannot record everything you see * Solution: must define what is being registered (standardized observation) * Potential Researcher Bias: observation is affected by what the researcher expects to find * Solution: several observers used to compare results (researcher triangulation) * Reactivity: we change our behaviour when we know we are being observed * Solution: covert observations
80
Focus groups
Small groups of people (5-12) who have something in common that is of interest to the researchers * identify areas of agreement and disagreement
81
Strengths of focus groups (name 2)
* effective for cross-cultural studies (can talk in everyday language and communicate as they normally would) * opportunities to develop own ideas based on what they hear from others * time saving * can identify cultural values/norms as they exist within the group
82
Focus groups limitations (name 2)
* people can be scared of sharing in a group - difficult to research sensitive issues * difficult to analyse data * conformity might occur
83
Benefits of triangulation (3)
credibility, reliability, validity
84
4 main types of triangulation
* **data triangulation** - more than one type of data * **researcher triangulation** - multiple researchers * **theoretical triangulation** - using more than one theoretical scheme in interpretation of phenomenon * **method triangulation** - using more than one method to gather data

Psychology SL (16 decks)

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