Research Methods Midterm 1 (Ch. 2, 3, 4, 5, 13)

Question 0

Confederate

Answer 0

An actor who is directed by the researcher to play a specific role in a research study.

Question 1

Confound

Answer 1

A potential alternative explanation for a research finding (a threat to internal validity).

Question 2

Biases of intuition (2/3)

Answer 2

Thinking the easy way:

1. The good story: accepting a conclusion because it “makes sense.”
2. The present/ Present bias: when it’s hard to look for absences and easy to notice what’s present
3. The pop up principle/ availability heuristic: things that easily come to mind guide our thinking.

Thinking what we want:

1. Cherry picking evidence: seeking evidence that supports what we think.
2. Asking biased questions: asking questions that are likely to give desired answers.
3. Being overconfident: once we have decided on something, we want to think we are right.

Question 3

Cherry picking the Evidence

Answer 3

Seeking and accepting only the evidence that supports what we already think and what we want to think.

Question 4

Pop-up Principle/Availability Heuristic

Answer 4

The tendency to rely predominantly on evidence that easily comes to mind rather that use all possible evidence in evaluating some conclusion.

Question 5

Present/Present Bias

Answer 5

The tendency to rely only on what is present (e.g., instances in which both a treatment and a desired outcome are present) and ignore what is absent ( e.g., instances in which a treatment is absent or the desired outcome is absent) when evaluating the evidence for a conclusion.

Question 6

Overconfidence Bias

Answer 6

Once we decide what we think, we tend to be overconfident in our ideas, we want to think we are right.

Question 7

Confirmatory hypothesis testing/asking leading or biased questions

Answer 7

The tendency to ask only the questions that will lead to the expected answer.

Question 8

Empirical Journal Articles

Answer 8

A scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study.

Question 9

Review Journal Article

Answer 9

An article summarizing all the studies that have been done in one research area.

Question 10

Meta-Analysis

Answer 10

A way of mathematically averaging the results of all the studies that have tested the same variables, to see what conclusion that whole body of evidence supports.

Question 11

Chapters from edited books

Answer 11

Chapters in edited books are written by psychologists who describe their research in an edited book. An edited book is a collection of chapters on a common topic, in which each chapter is written by a different contributor.

Question 12

Controlled studies vs. Observational studies

Answer 12

.

Question 13

Observational studies

Answer 13

The process of watching people or animals and systematically recording what they are doing.

Question 14

Controlled research

Answer 14

Researcher controlled comparisons of all the variables.

Question 15

Comparison Group

Answer 15

A group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way.

Question 16

Control Group

Answer 16

A level of an independent variable that is intended to represent “no treatment” or a neural condition.

Question 17

Conceptual Definition

Answer 17

A researcher’s definition of a variable at an abstract level.
2. Ex. To measure happiness - “subjective well-being” (well being from a persons own perspective).

Question 18

Operational Definition

Answer 18

The specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study.
2. Ex. To measure Happiness - operationalize subjective well being by asking people to report on their own happiness with their life in a questionnaire format. The people will choose to define what a good life is.

Question 19

Independent Variable

Answer 19

A variable that is manipulated in an experiment. In a regression analysis, it is the variable used to explain variance in the criterion variable.

Question 20

Dependent Variable

Answer 20

In an experiment, the variable that is measured, or the outcome variable. In a regression analysis, the single outcome, or criterion variable that the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting.

Question 21

Anecdotal Claims

Answer 21

A claim based on an isolated experience or illustrative story not an empirical study.

Question 22

Frequency Claim (4)

Answer 22

1. A claim that describes a particular rate or level of a single variable.
2. Focus on only one variable, ‘depression,’ ‘happiness,’ ‘test scores’
3. Variables are always measured, not manipulated.
4. Construct validity, external validity

Question 23

Association Claim (4)

Answer 23

1. A claim about two variables, in which the level of one variable is said to vary systematically with the level of another variable, such that when one variable changes, the other variable tends to change, too.
2. Claim that has two variables.
3. Variables are measured not manipulated.
4. Construct, external, statistical validity

Question 24

Causal Claim (3)

Answer 24

1. A claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the level of another variable.
2. Uses verbs- causes, affects, curbs, changes, leads to, makes, helps, hurts (exciting verbs).
3. A variable was manipulated.
4. Covariance, temporal precedence, internal, construct, external, statistical validity.

Question 25

Negative Association (2)

Answer 25

1. An association in which high levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable.
2. Also referred to inverse association.

Question 26

Positive Association (2)

Answer 26

1. An association in which high levels of one variable go with high levels of the other variable, and low levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable.
2. Ex. Belly fat linked to dementia

Question 27

Zero Association (2)

Answer 27

1. No association between two variables.

2. On a scatter plot, horizontal line.

Question 28

Curvilinear Association (2)

Answer 28

1. An association in which, as one variable increases, the level of the other variable changes it’s pattern ( such as increasing and then decreasing).
2. Ex. As people age, health services change.

Question 29

Construct Validity

Answer 29

A measure of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study. (How accurately a researcher has operationalized a variable, also has the variable been measured reliably). Ex. How well did you measure weight, did you use an accurate scale?

Question 30

External Validity

Answer 30

A measure how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself.

Question 31

Internal Validity (third variable rule)

Answer 31

The ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variables.

Question 32

Statistical Validity

Answer 32

The extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonable.

Question 33

Ecological Validity

Answer 33

The extent to which the tasks and manipulations of a study are similar to real-world context.

Question 34

Third-Variable Rule (3)

Answer 34

1. One of the three rules for establishing causation
2. Refers to the ability to rule out alternative explanations for a proposed causal relationship between two variables.
3. Also referred to as internal validity

Question 35

Rule of Covariance

Answer 35

One of the three rules for establishing causation, stating that the proposed casual variables must vary systematically with changes in the proposed outcome variable. (As A changes, B changes; A up, B up; A down, B down).

Question 36

Rule of Temporal Precedence

Answer 36

One of the three rules for establishing causation, stating that the proposed causal variable comes first in time, before the proposed outcome variable. (A first, the B comes).

Question 37

Tuskegee study

Answer 37

The Tuskegee study (1932) participants were:

1. Harmed: not told about treatment, and subjected to painful and dangerous tests.
2. Not treated respectfully: researchers lied about their participation, withheld information, did not provide full informed consent.
3. Targeted a disadvantaged social group: syphilis affects people from all ethnicities but researchers chose to only study poor African Americans.

Question 38

Beneficence

Answer 38

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote participants’ well-being.

Question 39

Justice

Answer 39

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it.

Question 40

Respect for Persons

Answer 40

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that certain groups deserve special protections.

Question 41

​Informed Consent

Answer 41

Research participants’ right to learn about a research project, know its risks and benefits, and decide whether to participate.

Question 42

Deception through commission/omission

Answer 42

1. Withholding some details of a study from participants is deception by omission.
2. Actively lying about all or some details of a study from participants is deception by commission.

Question 43

Plagiarism

Answer 43

The representation of the ideas or words of others as one’s own.

Question 44

Data Fabrication

Answer 44

An ethical problem that occurs when researchers invent data that fit their hypotheses.

Question 45

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Answer 45

A committee responsible for ensuring that research on humans is conducted ethically.

Question 46

Coercion (2)

Answer 46

1. Explicit or implicit suggestions that participants will suffer a negative consequence if they do not participate.
2. Offering an incentive too attractive to refuse

Question 47

Debrief

Answer 47

To inform participants afterward about a study’s true nature, details, and hypotheses.

Question 48

Categorical variable

Answer 48

Operational variables are categorical, categories. Ex. Sex, species, eye color, height, etc.

Question 49

Ordinal scale

Answer 49

This measurement applies when the numerals of a quantitative variable represent a rank order. Ex. Four star hotels vs. two star hotels.

Question 50

Interval scale

Answer 50

Measurement applies to numerals of a quantitative variable that meet two conditions. The numerals represent equal intervals between levels and there is never a true zero. Ex. IQ test, temperature degrees.

Question 51

Ratio scale

Answer 51

Measurement applies when the numerals of a quantitative variable have equal intervals and the value of zero does mean truly nothing. Ex. Weight, income, brain activity.

Question 52

Self-report measure

Answer 52

Operationalizes a variable by recording peoples answers to verbal questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview.

Question 53

Observational measure

Answer 53

Operationalizes a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors.

Question 54

Physiological measure

Answer 54

Operationalizes a variable by recording biological data such as brain activity, hormone levels, or heart rate.

Question 55

Test-Retest Reliability

Answer 55

The consistency in results every time a measure is used.

Question 56

Interrater reliability

Answer 56

Consistent results are obtained no matter who measures or observes

Question 57

Internal Reliability

Answer 57

Study participant gives consistent pattern of answers no matter how the researcher has phrased the question.

Question 58

Reliability/ validity relationship

Answer 58

A test that is reliable does not mean its valid

Question 59

Cronbach’s Alpha

Answer 59

1. A correlation-based statistics that measures a scale’s internal reliability.
2. The closer your Cronbach’s alpha survey score is to 1, the better the scales reliability.

Question 60

WEIRD samples

Answer 60

Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic population samples

Question 61

Direct replication

Answer 61

Having researchers repeat an original study as closely as they can, to see whether the original effect shows up in the newly collected data.

Question 62

Conceptual replication

Answer 62

Researchers study the same research question but use different procedures, operationalizing the variables are different.

Question 63

Replication-Plus-Extension

Answer 63

Researchers replicate their original study but add variables to test additional questions.

Question 64

Generalizability

Answer 64

The extent to which the subjects in a study represents the populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in a study represent other settings or contexts. (Concerned with external validity, generalizability from sample to population).

Question 65

Ecological validity

Answer 65

(Or mundane realism) the extent to which the tasks and manipulations of a study are similar to real-world contexts that people might encounter in their everyday lives

Question 66

Mundane Realism

Answer 66

(Or ecological validity) the extent to which the tasks and manipulations of a study are similar to real-world context.

Question 67

File drawer problem

Answer 67

The idea that studies finding null effects are less likely to be published than studies finding significant results.

Question 68

Generalization Mode

Answer 68

The intent of researchers to generalize the findings from the samples and procedures in their study to other larger populations or contexts. (Concerned about external validity).

Question 69

Theory-testing Mode

Answer 69

The testing of association claims or casual claims to investigate support for a theory. (Not very interested in external validity) (see also generalization mode).