RM: Ethical issues

Question 1

What is cost benefit analysis?

Answer 1

A systematic approach to estimating the negatives and positives of any research!

Question 2

What is debriefing?

Why might it also be used?

Answer 2

A post research interview- designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state that they were in at the start of the study.

It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in a study.

Question 3

Ethical guidelines (code of conduct)

Answer 3

A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity.

Question 4

Ethics committee?

Answer 4

A group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins.

Question 5

What is Presumptive consent?

Answer 5

A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or decpetion- by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study.

If this group of people consent to the procedures in the proposed study, it is assumed that the real participants would also have agreed!

Question 6

What are the ethical issues that you must deal with in an investigation?

Answer 6

• Informed consent
• Deception
• The right to withdraw
• Protection from harm
• Confidentiality
• Privacy

Question 7

How do you deal with informed consent?

Answer 7

• Participants are asked to formally indicate their agreement to participate by e.g.
• Signing a document which contains comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it.
• An alternative is to gain presumptive consent.
• Researchers must also offer the right to withdraw!

Question 8

What are the limitations of informed consent?

Answer 8

• If a participant is given full information about a study- this may invalidate the purpose of the study!
• Even if researchers have obtained informed consent- that does not guarantee that participants really do understand what they have let themselves in for!
• The problem with presumptive consent is what people expect that they will or will not mind can be different from actually experiencing it!

Question 9

Deception- How is it dealt with?

Answer 9

• The need for deception should be approved by the ethics committee, weighing up benefits ( of the study) against costs ( to the participants)
• Participants should be fully debriefed after the study- involves informing them of the true nature of the study.
• Participants should be given the opportunity to discuss any concerns they may have and to withhold their data from the study- a form of retrospective informed consent.

Question 10

What are the limitations of deception?

Answer 10

• Cost benefit decisions are flawed because they involve subjective judgements, and the costs and/ or benefits are not always apparent until after the study!
• Debriefing cant turn the clock back- a participant may still feel embarassed or have lowered self- esteem!

Question 11

The right to withdraw- How is it dealt with?

Answer 11

Participants should be informed at the beginning of the study that they have the right to withdraw!

Question 12

The right to withdraw- limitations

Answer 12

• Participants may feel they shouldn’t withdraw because it will spoil the study.
• In many studies participants are paid or rewarded in some way, and may not feel able to withdraw.

Question 13

Protection from harm- how is this dealt with?

Answer 13

• Avoid any risks greater than experienced in everyday life!
• Stop the study if harm is suspected.

Question 14

Protection from harm- limitations

Answer 14

Harm may not be apparent at the time of the study and only judged later with hindsight!

Question 15

Confidentiality- how is this dealt with?

Answer 15

Researchers should not record the names of any participants; they should use numbers or false names.

Question 16

Confidentiality- limitations

Answer 16

It is sometimes possible to work out who the participants were using information that has been provided, for example the geographical location of a school. In practise, therefore, confidentiality may not be possible!

Question 17

Privacy- how is this dealt with?

Answer 17

Do not study anyone without their informed consent unless it is in a public place or public behaviour!

Question 18

Privacy- limitations

Answer 18

There is no universal agreement about what constitutes a public place!

Question 19

Cost- benefit analysis- how may researchers judge the costs? What groups of people, what may they say?

Answer 19

• Judged from a participants point of view, might list distress and loss of time vs payment and contribution to a scientific study!
• Judged in terms of society at large- consider the value in improving lives vs the possibility that the individuals may be harmed in the process!
• Judged in terms of the group to which an individual belongs to- when research is done to investigate cultural differences- research may not harm the individual but findings may lead to biased treatment of the individuals cultural group.

Question 20

What may happen if a psychologist doesn’t behave in an ethical manner such as conducting unnacceptable research?

Answer 20

The BPS reviews the research and may decide to bar the person from practising as a psychologist . It is not a legal matter ( the psychologist won’t go to prison!)

Question 21

Informed consent- from the researchers point of view.

Is this good/bad for the reseacher/ why?

Answer 21

Means revealing the true aims of the study- or atleast telling the participants what is going to happen.

Revealing the details might cause participants to guess the aims of the study- which may cause the participants to behave in a different way- therefore researchers may not want to reveal the aims of the study.

Question 22

Informed consent- from the participants point of view.

Answer 22

They should be told what is required of them in the study- so they can make an informed decision as to whether they would like to participate- it is a basic human right!!!

Question 23

Deception- from the researchers point of view.

What distinction should be made?

Answer 23

It can be necessary to deceive participants about the true aims of the study- otherwise participants may alter their behaviour and the study could be meaningless!!

Distinction- between withholding some of the details of the research aims (reasonably acceptable) and deliberatley providing false information- (less acceptable)!!!

Question 24

Deception- participants point of view.

Why is this unethical?

Answer 24

• Deception prevents participants being able to give informed consent.
• They may agree to participate- but don’t really know what they have got themselves into- they may be distressed by the experience!
• Can lead people to percieve psychologists as untrustworthy- they may not want to take part in future studies.

Question 25

What did Diana Baumrind argue about in 1985?

Answer 25

That deception is wrong on the basis of **3** generally accepted ethical rules in Western society. * The right of **informed consent**. * The obligation of the researchers to **protect the welfare of the participant.** * The **responsibility** of researchers to be trustworthy.

Question 26

The right to withdraw- from a researchers point of view.

Answer 26

If participants do leave in a study- this will **bias** the results because the participants who have stayed are more likely to be more **obediant**- or they might be more **hardy**- leading to a biased result!!

Question 27

From the participants point of view- the right to withdraw. Why is it important?

Answer 27

* If a participant begins to feel **distressed** or **uncomfortable**- they should be able to withdraw! * This is especially important if the participants have been **deceived** about the aims/ procedures of the study. * Even if the participant has been fully informed- the actual experience of taking part may **turn out to be different**- so they should be able to withdraw!!

Question 28

Why may some participants feel that they are unable to withdraw from a study?

Answer 28

They may be given a reward e.g. money/ university credits etc..

Question 29

PROTECTION FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSICAL HARM From the researchers point of view.

Answer 29

Studying some of the more important questions in psychology may involve a **degree of stress** to participants. It is also hard to predict the outcome of certain procedures- therefore it is difficult to guarantee **protection from harm.**

Question 30

PROTECTION FROM PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL HARM From the **participants** point of view

Answer 30

* Nothing should happen during a study that causes participants harm!!! * It is acceptable if the risk of harm is **no greater than a participant would be likely to experience in ordinary life,** and if participants are in the same state after a study as they were before- unless given their informed consent to be treated otherwise!!!

Question 31

CONFIDENTIALITY From the researchers point of view.

Answer 31

* It may be **difficult** to protect confidentiality because the researcher wishes to publish the findings. * A researcher **may guarantee anonymity** ( neither the researcher or anybody else is able to connect the data of a specific participant) but even then- it may be obvious who has been involved in a study.

Question 32

CONFIDENTIALITY From the participant's point of view

Answer 32

* The **Data Protection Act** makes confidentiality a legal right. * It is only acceptable for personal data to be recorded if the data are not made available in a form that identifies the participants.

Question 33

PRIVACY From the researcher's point of view

Answer 33

It may be difficult to avoid invasion of privacy when studying participants without their awareness- e.g. in a field experiment.

Question 34

PRIVACY From the participants point of view.

Answer 34

People do not expect to be observed by others in certain situations, for example when in the privacy of their own homes, while they might expect this when sitting on a park bench in public.